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The dolphin and ichthyosaur The members of lineages
lineages are far apart on the between the dolphins and
evolutionary tree, suggesting ichthyosaurs do not have
that they are not closely adaptations such as:
related streamlined bodies
long jaws filled with teeth
fins and flippers
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and humans have similar
sequences and are in the
same order on their
chromosomes
Gram-positive
cells
Gram-negative
cells
Figure 28-14b
Cell
wall
Peptidoglycan
Plasma
Protein
membrane
Figure 28-14c
Cell Outer
wall membrane
Peptidoglycan
Plasma
membrane Protein
Prokaryotes, cont.
Many have a capsule, which is sticky (made of
polysaccharides or proteins) and allows the bacteria
to stick to a substrate or to other bacteria to form a
colony
Some have fimbriae, which are long, hair-like
projections that allow them to fasten to the mucous
membranes of their hosts
Many also have sex pili for conjugation (passing
pieces of DNA back and forth for sexual reproduction)
About have flagella to help them move directionally
(the flagellum isnt as thick as a eukaryotic flagellum
and is not covered by an extension of the plasma
membrane)
Come in 3 main shapes, bacillus, coccus, and spiral
Figure 28-10
Escherichia coli, strain K-12 Growth in liquid medium Growth on solid medium
The success of Prokaryotes
Rapid reproduction, genetic recombination, and
mutation provides diversity
Prokaryotes are therefore highly evolved
Genetic recombination happens b/c of
Transformation-this can happen spontaneously in
nature if bacteria come into contact with other strains
that have died
Transduction-bacteriophages carry genes from one
host to the other. This is accidental as it provides no
advantage for the virus
Conjugation-through the sex pilus b/c of the F factor
(25 genes) that are required for production of the sex
pilus (can be on a plasmid or in the chromosome)
R plasmids (resistance to antibiotics) can be transferred
by conjugation too
Reproduction and Adaptation
Recall that prokaryotes have a single chromosome but
also may contain small plasmids that occurs in the
nucleoid region of the cell
Prokaryotes can reproduce asexually by binary fission
(see the cell division notes) or can reproduce sexually
using conjugation and binary fission
Under ideal conditions, bacteria can divide every 20
minutes (in reality, they divide every 12-24 hours)
Certain bacteria can produce an endospore when
conditions are lacking
The bacteria produces a copy of its chromosome
(internally), and surrounds it with a tough wall.
The rest of the cell dehydrates and dies
When conditions are better, the endospore resumes
its metabolism
Endospores can be hard to kill (can survive heat up
to 121 C
Prokaryote Metabolism
Like Eukaryotes, some Prokaryotes are
autotrophic, while others are heterotrophic
There are 4 main Nutritional Modes:
Autotrophs
Photoautotrophs-Do photosynthesis
Chemoautotrophs-Do chemosynthesis using
Hydrogen sulfide in stead of light
Heterotrophs
Photoheterotrophs-Can harness light energy but
need to get Carbon in an organic form
Chemoheterotrophs-Must consume organic
molecules to get energy and carbon
More Metabolism
Role of oxygen
Some are obligate aerobes, some are obligate
anaerobes
Anaerobes can do fermentation, while others just do
anaerobic respiration in which nitrates or sulfates act
as electron acceptors in stead of Oxygen
Facultative anaerobes can use oxygen if present, but
can also carry out anaerobic respiration in the
absence of oxygen
Metabolic cooperation
Bacteria in colonies can become specialized to carry
out just 1 metabolic function (ex: just nitrogen
fixation, or photosynthesis)
Such bacteria form Biofilms with channels that allow
nutrient transport. The cells in a biofilm chemically
signal one another
Figure 28-00
Ecological Importance of
Prokaryotes
Nitrogen fixation-Eukaryotes can only
accept Nitrogen in certain forms,
prokaryotes can accept it in virtually any
form, which allows them to pull
atmospheric nitrogen and convert it to
ammonia and other nitrogen-containing
compounds
Root nodules of plants contain bacteria that
release usable nitrogen to plants
Figure 28-16
N2
in atmosphere
Denitrification Fixation by
by bacteria bacteria and archaea
and archaea
Uptake Decomposition
from soil
Uptake
from soil
NO3 NH3
Plants
(nitrate) (ammonia)
Uptake Decomposition
from soil
Nitrification Nitrification
by bacteria by bacteria
NO2
(nitrite)
Figure 28-6
Root nodules
Other Interactions of bacteria
Mutualistic relationships-
Gut bacteria that help you digest food
Root nodule bacteria
Decomposing bacteria in the soil
Commensal relationships-
Bacteria that live on your skins surface
Parasitic relationships-
Disease-causing bacteria produce poisons that cause
illness
Exotoxins-proteins secreted by bacteria (Ex: Cholera,
botulinum)
Endotoxins-lipopolysaccharide components of gram-
negative bacteria which are only released when the
bacteria die (Ex: Salmonella, typhoid fever)
Figure 28-2-Table 28-2
Non-symbiotic uses of Prokaryotes
Food Production
Biomedical Research
Biormediation-using bacteria to
remove pollutants from soil, air, or
water
But were still dealing with 2
Domains, right?
Archaea
Known as the extremophiles
3 main types:
Extreme halophiles-love salt like in the Great Salt
Lake or the Dead Sea. Their cell walls are adapted to
such conditions
Extreme thermophiles-love heat like in volcanic
springs. Their DNA and proteins are adapted so that
they dont denature in high heat
Methanogens-Anaerobic bacteria that relase methane as
their waste product. Found in marshes or under ice in
Greenland
Bacteria
These are the bacteria that youre most familiar with
and are also extraordinarily diverse
Bacteria
Figure 28-12
Archaea
Fi
rm
i
Sp cut
Eukarya
iro es
Ac cha
tin el
e
C ob s
hl a
am cte
C r
ya ydi ia
no ale
ba s
- ct
Pr er
ia
Bacteria
- ote
Pr o
- ote bac
Pr o te
- ote bac ria
Pr o te
- ote bac ria
Pr o te
ot ba ri
eo ct a
Proteobacteria
ba e r
ct ia
er
ia
Su
lf
A olo
er b
Th opy us
e ru
Crenarchaeota
A rm m
rc op
M hae las
Archaea
et o m
Py han glo a
ro oc bu
co o s
cc cc
Euryarchaeota
us us
Eu
ka
ry
a
Figure 28-1-Table 28-1
Figure 28-13
Size varies
The sizes of bacteria and archaea vary. Mycoplasma
cells (left) are about 0.5 m in diameter, while Thiomargarita
namibiensis cells (right) are about 150 m in diameter.
Shape varies
The shapes of bacteria and archaea vary from
rods such as Bacillus anthracis (left) and spheres
to filaments or spirals such as Rhodospirillum.
In some species, such as Streptococcus faecalis
(right), cells attach to one another and form chains.
Mobility varies
A wide variety of bacteria and archaea use flagella (left)
to power swimming movements. These cyanobacterial
cells (right) move by gliding across a substrate.