Infinite Sequences and Series

11
INFINITE SEQUENCES AND SERIES

In section 11.9, we were able to

find power series representations for
a certain restricted class of functions.
Here, we investigate more general

problems.
Which functions have power series

representations?
How can we find such representations?

11.10
Taylor and Maclaurin Series
In this section, we will learn:

How to find the Taylor and Maclaurin Series of a function
and to multiply and divide a power series.
TAYLOR & MACLAURIN SERIES Equation 1
We start by supposing that f is any function
that can be represented by a power series
f ( x) c0 c1 ( x a ) c2 ( x a ) 2
c3 ( x a )3 c4 ( x a ) 4 ... | x a | R
TAYLOR & MACLAURIN SERIES
Lets try to determine what the
coefficients cn must be in terms of f.
To begin, notice that, if we put x = a in

Equation 1, then all terms after the first one
are 0 and we get:
f(a) = c0
By Theorem 2 in Section 11.9, we can
differentiate the series in Equation 1 term by
term:
f '( x) c1 2c2 ( x a ) 3c3 ( x a ) 2
4c4 ( x a ) ...
3
| x a | R
Substitution of x = a in Equation 2
gives:
f(a) = c1
Now, we differentiate both sides of Equation 2
and obtain:
f ''( x) 2c2 2 3c3 ( x a )

3 4c4 ( x a) ... | x a | R
2
Again, we put x = a in Equation 3.
The result is:
f(a) = 2c2
Lets apply the procedure

one more time.
Differentiation of the series in Equation 3
gives:
f '''( x) 2 3c3 2
3 4c4 ( x a)
3 4
5c5 ( x a) ... | x a | R
2
Then, substitution of x = a in Equation 4
gives:
f(a) = 2 3c3 = 3!c3

By now, you can see the pattern.
If we continue to differentiate and substitute

x = a, we obtain:
f ( n ) (a ) 2 3 4
ncn n !c
n
Solving the equation for the nth
coefficient cn, we get:
(n)
f (a)
cn
n!
The formula remains valid even for n = 0
if we adopt the conventions that 0! = 1
and f (0) = (f).
Thus, we have proved the following theorem.

TAYLOR & MACLAURIN SERIES Theorem 5
If f has a power series representation
(expansion) at a, that is, if

f ( x) cn ( x a ) n
| x a | R
n 0
then its coefficients are given by:
(n)
f (a)
cn
n!
Substituting this formula for cn back into
the series, we see that if f has a power series
expansion at a, then it must be of the following
form.

f ( n ) (a)
f ( x) ( x a) n
n0 n!
f '(a ) f ''(a )
f (a) ( x a) ( x a)2
1! 2!
f '''(a )
( x a )
3
3!
TAYLOR SERIES
The series in Equation 6 is called
the Taylor series of the function f at a
(or about a or centered at a).
TAYLOR SERIES Equation 7
For the special case a = 0, the Taylor series
becomes:
(n)
f (0) n
f ( x) x
n 0 n!
f '(0) f ''(0) 2
f (0) x x
1! 2!
MACLAURIN SERIES Equation 7
This case arises frequently
enough that it is given the special
name Maclaurin series.
The Taylor series is named after the English
mathematician Brook Taylor (16851731).
The Maclaurin series is named for the Scottish

mathematician Colin Maclaurin (16981746).
This is despite the fact that the Maclaurin series is really

just a special case of the Taylor series.
MACLAURIN SERIES
Maclaurin series are named after Colin
Maclaurin because he popularized them
in his calculus textbook Treatise of Fluxions
published in 1742.
TAYLOR & MACLAURIN SERIES Note
We have shown that if, f can be represented
as a power series about a, then f is equal to
the sum of its Taylor series.
However, there exist functions that are not

equal to the sum of their Taylor series.
An example is given in Exercise 70.

TAYLOR & MACLAURIN SERIES Example 1
Find the Maclaurin series
of the function f(x) = ex and
its radius of convergence.
If f(x) = ex, then f (n)(x) = ex.
So, f (n)(0) = e0 = 1 for all n.
Hence, the Taylor series for f at 0

(that is, the Maclaurin series) is:

f ( n ) (0) n x n x x 2 x3

n 0 n!
x 1
n 0 n ! 1! 2! 3!
To find the radius of convergence,
we let an = xn/n!
n 1
Then, a x n! | x|
n 1
n 0 1
an (n 1)! x n 1
So, by the Ratio Test, the series converges for all x

and the radius of convergence is R = .
The conclusion we can draw from
Theorem 5 and Example 1 is:
If ex has a power series expansion at 0,

then
n
x
e
x
n 0 n !
So, how can we determine
whether ex does have a power
series representation?
Lets investigate the more general
question:
Under what circumstances is a function

equal to the sum of its Taylor series?
In other words, if f has derivatives of all
orders, when is the following true?
(n)
f (a )
f ( x) ( x a) n
n 0 n!
As with any convergent series,
this means that f(x) is the limit of
the sequence of partial sums.
In the case of the Taylor series, the partial
sums are:
n (i )
f (a)
Tn ( x) ( x a) i
i 0 i!
f '(a ) f ''(a)
f (a ) ( x a) ( x a) 2
1! 2!
(n)
f (a)
( x a) n
n!
nTH-DEGREE TAYLOR POLYNOMIAL OF f AT a
Notice that Tn is a polynomial
of degree n called the nth-degree Taylor
polynomial of f at a.
For instance, for the exponential function
f(x) = ex, the result of Example 1 shows that
the Taylor polynomials at 0 (or Maclaurin
polynomials) with n = 1, 2, and 3 are:
2
x
T1 ( x) 1 x T2 ( x) 1 x
2!
2 3
x x
T3 ( x) 1 x
2! 3!
The graphs of the exponential function
and those three Taylor polynomials are
drawn here.
In general, f(x) is the sum of its Taylor
series if:
f ( x) lim Tn ( x)
n
REMAINDER OF TAYLOR SERIES
If we let Rn(x) = f(x) Tn(x)
so that f(x) = Tn(x) + Rn(x)
then Rn(x) is called the remainder of

the Taylor series.
If we can somehow show that lim R ( x) 0 ,
n
n
then it follows that:
lim Tn ( x) lim[ f ( x) Rn ( x)]

n n
f ( x) lim Rn ( x)
n
f ( x)
Therefore, we have proved the following.
TAYLOR & MACLAURIN SERIES Theorem 8
If f(x) = Tn(x) + Rn(x), where Tn is
the nth-degree Taylor polynomial of f at a
and
lim Rn ( x) 0
n
for |x a| < R, then f is equal to the sum of

its Taylor series on the interval |x a| < R.
In trying to show that lim Rn ( x) 0
n
for a specific function f, we usually use
the following fact.
TAYLORS INEQUALITY Theorem 9
If |f (n+1)(x)| M for |x a| d,
then the remainder Rn(x) of the Taylor series
satisfies the inequality
M n 1
| Rn ( x) | | xa| for | x a | d
(n 1)!
TAYLORS INEQUALITY
To see why this is true for n = 1, we
assume that |f(x)| M.
In particular, we have f(x) M.
So, for a x a + d, we have:
x x
a
f ''(t ) dt M dt
a
TAYLORS INEQUALITY
An antiderivative of f is f.
So, by Part 2 of the Fundamental Theorem

of Calculus (FTC2), we have:
f(x) f(a) M(x a)

or
f(x) f(a) + M(x a)
TAYLORS INEQUALITY
Thus,
x x
a
f '(t ) dt [ f '(a ) M (t a ) dt
a
( x a) 2
f ( x) f (a) f '(a)( x a ) M
2
M
f ( x) f (a) f '(a)( x a ) ( x a) 2
2
TAYLORS INEQUALITY
However,
R1(x) = f(x) T1(x) = f(x) f(a) f(a)(x a)
So,
M
R1 ( x) ( x a) 2
2
TAYLORS INEQUALITY
A similar argument, using f(x) -M,

shows that:
M
R1 ( x) ( x a ) 2
So, M
| R1 ( x) | | x a |2
2
TAYLORS INEQUALITY
We have assumed that x > a.
However, similar calculations show that

this inequality is also true for x < a.
TAYLORS INEQUALITY
This proves Taylors Inequality for
the case where n = 1.
The result for any n is proved in a similar way

by integrating n + 1 times.
See Exercise 69 for the case n = 2

TAYLORS INEQUALITY Note
In Section 11.11, we will explore the use of
Taylors Inequality in approximating functions.
Our immediate use of it is in conjunction with

Theorem 8.
TAYLORS INEQUALITY
In applying Theorems 8 and 9,
it is often helpful to make use of
the following fact.
TAYLORS INEQUALITY Equation 10
n
x
lim 0 for every real number x
n n !
This is true because we know from Example 1

that the series xn/n! converges for all x, and so
its nth term approaches 0.
TAYLORS INEQUALITY Example 2
Prove that ex is equal to the sum of
its Maclaurin series.
If f(x) = ex, then f (n+1)(x) = ex for all n.
If d is any positive number and |x| d,

then |f (n+1)(x)| = ex ed.
So, Taylors Inequality, with a = 0 and
M = ed, says that:
d
e n 1
| Rn ( x) | | x| for | x | d
(n 1)!
Notice that the same constant M = ed works

for every value of n.
However, from Equation 10, we have:
d n 1
e n 1 |x|
lim | x | e lim
d
0
n ( n 1)! n ( n 1)!
It follows from the Squeeze Theorem

that lim | R ( x) | 0 and so lim R ( x) 0
n n
n n
for all values of x.

TAYLORS INEQUALITY E. g. 2Equation 11
By Theorem 8, ex is equal to the sum
of its Maclaurin series, that is,
n
x
e
x
for all x
n 0 n !
In particular, if we put x = 1 in Equation 11,
we obtain the following expression for
the number e as a sum of an infinite series:

1 1 1 1
e 1
n 0 n ! 1! 2! 3!
Find the Taylor series for f(x) = ex
at a = 2.
We have f (n)(2) = e2.

So, putting a = 2 in the definition of a Taylor series
(Equation 6), we get:
(n) 2
f (2) e

n 0 n!
( x 2) ( x 2)
2
n 0 n !
2
TAYLOR & MACLAURIN SERIES E. g. 3Equation 13
Again it can be verified, as in Example 1,
that the radius of convergence is R = .
As in Example 2, we can verify

that lim R ( x) 0
n
n
Thus,
2
e
e ( x 2)
x n
for all x
n 0 n !
We have two power series expansions for ex,
the Maclaurin series in Equation 11 and the
Taylor series in Equation 13.
The first is better if we are interested in

values of x near 0.
The second is better if x is near 2.

Find the Maclaurin series for sin x
and prove that it represents sin x
for all x.
We arrange our computation in two columns:
f ( x) sin x f (0) 0
f '( x) cos x f '(0) 1
f ''( x) sin x f ''(0) 0
f '''( x) cos x f '''(0) 1
f (4)
( x) sin x f (4)
(0) 0
As the derivatives repeat in a cycle of four,
we can write the Maclaurin series as follows:
f '(0) f ''(0) 2 f '''(0) 3

f (0) x x x
1! 2! 3!
3 5 7
x x x
x
3! 5! 7!
2 n 1
x
(1) n
n 0 (2n 1)!
Since f (n+1)(x) is sin x or cos x,
we know that |f (n+1)(x)| 1 for all x.
So, we can take M = 1 in Taylors
Inequality:
n 1
M n 1 |x|
| Rn ( x) | | x |
(n 1)! (n 1)!
By Equation 10, the right side of that
inequality approaches 0 as n .
So, |Rn(x)| 0 by the Squeeze Theorem.
It follows that Rn(x) 0 as n .
So, sin x is equal to the sum of its Maclaurin

series by Theorem 8.
We state the result of Example 4 for future
reference.
3 5 7
x x x
sin x x
3! 5! 7!
2 n 1
x
(1) n
for all x
n 0 (2n 1)!
The figure shows the graph of sin x
together with its Taylor (or Maclaurin)
polynomials
T1 ( x) x
3
x
T3 ( x) x
3!
3 5
x x
T5 x
3! 5!
Notice that, as n increases, Tn(x) becomes
a better approximation to sin x.
Find the Maclaurin series for cos x.
We could proceed directly as in Example 4.
However, its easier to differentiate the Maclaurin

series for sin x given by Equation 15, as follows.
d
cos x (sin x)
dx
d x 3
x 5
x 7

x
dx 3! 5! 7!
2 4 6
3x 5 x 7 x
1
3! 5! 7!
2 4 6
x x x
1
2! 4! 6!
The Maclaurin series for sin x converges
for all x.
So, Theorem 2 in Section 11.9 tells us

that the differentiated series for cos x also
converges for all x.
Thus,
2 4 6
x x x
cos x 1
2! 4! 6!
2n
n x
(1) for all x
n 0 (2n)!
The Maclaurin series for ex, sin x, and cos x
that we found in Examples 2, 4, and 5 were
discovered by Newton.
These equations are remarkable because they say

we know everything about each of these functions
if we know all its derivatives at the single number 0.
Find the Maclaurin series for the function
f(x) = x cos x.
Instead of computing derivatives and substituting

in Equation 7, its easier to multiply the series for
cos x (Equation 16) by x:
2n 2 n 1
x x
x cos x x (1) n
( 1)
n 0 (2n)! n 0 (2n)!
Represent f(x) = sin x as
the sum of its Taylor series
centered at /3.
Arranging our work in columns, we have:
3
f ( x) sin x f
3 2
1
f '( x) cos x f '
3 2
3
f ''( x) sin x f ''
3 2
1
f '''( x) cos x f '''
3 2
That pattern repeats

indefinitely.
Thus, the Taylor series at /3 is:

f ' f '' 2
3 3
f x x
3 1! 3 2! 3

f ''' 3
3
x
3! 3
2 3
3 1 3 1
x x x
2 2 1! 3 2 2!
3 2 3! 3
The proof that this series represents
sin x for all x is very similar to that in
Example 4.
Just replace x by x /3 in Equation 14.

We can write the series in sigma notation
if we separate the terms that contain 3 :
2n

(1) 3
n

sin x x
n 0 2(2 n)! 3
2 n 1

(1)
n

x
n 0 2(2n 1)! 3
We have obtained two different series
representations for sin x, the Maclaurin
series in Example 4 and the Taylor series
in Example 7.
It is best to use the Maclaurin series for values of x

near 0 and the Taylor series for x near /3.
Notice that the third Taylor polynomial T3
in the figure is a good approximation to sin x
near /3 but not as good near 0.
Compare it with the third Maclaurin polynomial
T3 in the earlier figurewhere the opposite is
true.
The power series that we obtained by indirect
methods in Examples 5 and 6 and in Section
11.9 are indeed the Taylor or Maclaurin series
of the given functions.
That is because Theorem 5 asserts that,
no matter how a power series representation
f(x) = cn(x a)n is obtained, it is always true
that cn = f (n)(a)/n!
In other words, the coefficients are uniquely

determined.
for f(x) = (1 + x)k, where k
is any real number.
Arranging our work in columns, we have:
f ( x) (1 x) k f (0) 1
f '( x) k (1 x) k 1 f '(0) k
f ''( x) k (k 1)(1 x) k 2 f ''(0) k (k 1)
f '''( x) k (k 1)(k 2)(1 x) k 3 f '''(0) k (k 1)(k 2)

f ( n ) k (k 1)
(k n 1)(1
x) k n f ( n ) (0) k(k 1)
(k n 1)
BINOMIAL SERIES Example 8
Thus, the Maclaurin series of f(x) = (1 + x)k
is:

f (0) n k (k 1)
(n)
( k n 1) n

n 0 n!
x
n 0 n!
x
This series is called the binomial series.

If its nth term is an, then
an 1
an
k (k 1)
(k n 1)( k n) x n 1 n!

(n 1)! k (k 1)
(k n 1)x n
k
1
|k n| n
| x | | x || x | as n
n 1 1
1
n
Therefore, by the Ratio Test,
the binomial series converges if |x| < 1
and diverges if |x| > 1.
BINOMIAL COEFFICIENTS.
The traditional notation for the coefficients
in the binomial series is:
k k (k 1)(k 2)
(k n 1)

n n!
These numbers are called the binomial

coefficients.
The following theorem states that (1 + x)k
is equal to the sum of its Maclaurin series.
It is possible to prove this by showing that

the remainder term Rn(x) approaches 0.
That, however, turns out to be quite difficult.
The proof outlined in Exercise 71 is much easier.

THE BINOMIAL SERIES Theorem 17
If k is any real number and |x| < 1,
then

k n
(1 x) x
k
n 0 n
k (k 1) 2
1 kx x
2!
k (k 1)(k 2) 3
x
3!
Though the binomial series always converges
when |x| < 1, the question of whether or not
it converges at the endpoints, 1, depends on
the value of k.
It turns out that the series converges at 1

if -1 < k 0 and at both endpoints if k 0.
Notice that, if k is a positive integer and n > k,
then the expression for
(k k).

k
n
contains a factor
So,
k
n 0 for n > k.
This means that the series terminates and reduces

to the ordinary Binomial Theorem when k is a positive
integer.
for the function 1
f ( x)
4 x
and its radius of convergence.
We write f(x) in a form where we can use
the binomial series:
1 1

4 x x
4 1
4
1/ 2
11 x
1
x 2 4
2 1
4
Using the binomial series with k =
and with x replaced by x/4, we have:
1
4 x
1/ 2
1 x
1
2 4
n
1 x
1

2
2 n 0 n 4
1
1 x x 1 3 2
1
2 2
2 2 4 2! 4

1 3 5
x
3
2 2 2

3! 4

n 1
1 3 5 1 n
x
2 2 2 2

n! 4
1 1 1 3 2 1 3 5 3
1 x 2
x 3
x
2 8 2!8 3!8
1 3
5 (2n 1)
n
x n

n !8
We know from Theorem 17 that this series
converges when |x/4| < 1, that is, |x| < 4.
So, the radius of convergence is R = 4.
For future reference, we collect some
important Maclaurin series that we have
derived in this section and Section 11.9,
in the following table.
IMPORTANT MACLAURIN SERIES Table 1

1
x 1 x x x
n 2 3
R 1
1 x n 0
n 2 3
x x x x
e 1
x
R
n 0 n ! 1! 2! 3!
2 n 1 3 5 7
x x x x
sin x ( 1) n x R
n0 (2n 1)! 3! 5! 7!
2n 2 4 6
x x x x
cos x (1) n 1 R
n 0 (2n)! 2! 4! 6!
2 n 1 3 5 7
x x x x
tan 1 x (1) n x R 1
n 0 2n 1 3 5 7

k n k (k 1) 2
(1 x) x 1 kx
k
x
n 0 n 2!
k (k 1)(k 2) 3
x R 1
3!
USES OF TAYLOR SERIES
One reason Taylor series are important is
that they enable us to integrate functions
that we couldnt previously handle.
In fact, in the introduction to this chapter,
we mentioned that Newton often integrated
functions by first expressing them as power
series and then integrating the series term
by term.
The function f(x) = ex2 cant be integrated
by techniques discussed so far.
Its antiderivative is not an elementary function

(see Section 7.5).
In the following example, we use Newtons idea

to integrate this function.
USES OF TAYLOR SERIES Example 10
a. Evaluate e-x2dx as an infinite series.
1

x2
b. Evaluate e dx correct to within
0
an error of 0.001
USES OF TAYLOR SERIES Example 10 a
First, we find the Maclaurin series
for f(x) = e-x2
It is possible to use the direct method.
However, lets find it simply by replacing x with x2 in

the series for ex given in Table 1.
Thus, for all values of x,

( x )
2 n

2
x
e
n 0 n!
2n
x
(1) n
n 0 n!
2 4 6
x x x
1 ...
1! 2! 3!
Now, we integrate term by term:
x 2
x4
x 6
n x
2n

e dx 1 ( 1)
2
x
dx
1! 2! 3! n!
x3 x5 x7
Cx
3 1! 5 2! 7 3!
2 n 1
x
( 1)n

(2n 1)n !
This series converges for all x because
the original series for e-x2 converges for all x.
USES OF TAYLOR SERIES Example 10 b
The FTC gives:
1
1 x 3 5
x x7
x 9

x2
x dx x
0
3 1! 5 2! 7 3! 9 4! 0
1 13 101 421 216
1

1 13 101 421 216
1
0.7475
USES OF TAYLOR SERIES Example 10 b
The Alternating Series Estimation
Theorem shows that the error involved
in this approximation is less than
1 1
0.001
11 5! 1320
Another use of Taylor series is illustrated
in the next example.
The limit could be found with lHospitals Rule.
Instead, we use a series.

Evaluate e 1 x
x
lim 2
x 0 x
Using the Maclaurin series for ex,

we have the following result.
x x 2 x3
1 1 x
e 1 x
x
1! 2! 3!
lim 2
lim 2
x 0 x x 0 x
2 3 4
x x x

lim 2! 3! 2 4!
x 0 x
1 x x 2 x 3 1
lim
x 0 2 3! 4! 5! 2

This is because power series are continuous
functions.
MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION OF POWER SERIES
If power series are added or subtracted,
they behave like polynomials.
Theorem 8 in Section 11.2 shows this.
In fact, as the following example shows, they can

also be multiplied and divided like polynomials.
MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION OF POWER SERIES
In the example, we find only the first
few terms.
The calculations for the later terms become

tedious.
The initial terms are the most important ones.

MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION Example 12
Find the first three nonzero terms
in the Maclaurin series for:
a. ex sin x
b. tan x
MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION Example 12 a
Using the Maclaurin series for ex and sin x
in Table 1, we have:
x x 2
x 3
x3
e sin x 1
x
x
1! 2! 3! 3!
We multiply these expressions, collecting
like terms just as for polynomials:
1 x x x
1
2
2 1
6
3
x x
1
6
3
x x 2 x 6 x
2 1 1 43
x x
1
6
3 1
6
4
x x x
2 1
3
3
Thus,
e sin x x x x
x 2 1
3
3
MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION Example 12 b
Using the Maclaurin series in Table 1,
we have:
3 5
x x
x
sin x 3! 5!
tan x 2 4
cos x x x
1
2! 4!
We use a procedure like long division:
x x
1
3
3 2
15 x
5
1 x
1
2
2 1
24 x x
4
x
1
6
3
x
1
120
5

x x
1
2
3 1
24 x
5
x
31
3
1
30 x
5
1
3 x 3 1
6 x
5
1
6 x
5
Thus,
tan x x x 1
3
3 2
15 x
5
MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION
Although we have not attempted to
justify the formal manipulations used in
Example 12, they are legitimate.
There is a theorem that states
the following:
Suppose both f(x) = cnxn and g(x) = bnxn converge

for |x| < R and the series are multiplied
as if they were polynomials.
Then, the resulting series also converges

for |x| < R and represents f(x)g(x).
For division, we require b0 0.
The resulting series converges for

sufficiently small x.

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11

INFINITE SEQUENCES AND SERIES

In section 11.9, we were able to

Here, we investigate more general

Which functions have power series

How can we find such representations?

In this section, we will learn:

To begin, notice that, if we put x = a in

f '( x) c1 2c2 ( x a ) 3c3 ( x a ) 2

f ''( x) 2c2 2 3c3 ( x a )

The result is:

Lets apply the procedure

f(a) = 2 3c3 = 3!c3

If we continue to differentiate and substitute

Thus, we have proved the following theorem.

then its coefficients are given by:

The Maclaurin series is named for the Scottish

This is despite the fact that the Maclaurin series is really

However, there exist functions that are not

An example is given in Exercise 70.

Hence, the Taylor series for f at 0

So, by the Ratio Test, the series converges for all x

If ex has a power series expansion at 0,

Under what circumstances is a function

then Rn(x) is called the remainder of

lim Tn ( x) lim[ f ( x) Rn ( x)]

for |x a| < R, then f is equal to the sum of

In particular, we have f(x) M.

So, for a x a + d, we have:

So, by Part 2 of the Fundamental Theorem

f(x) f(a) M(x a)

R1(x) = f(x) T1(x) = f(x) f(a) f(a)(x a)

A similar argument, using f(x) -M,

We have assumed that x > a.

However, similar calculations show that

The result for any n is proved in a similar way

See Exercise 69 for the case n = 2

Our immediate use of it is in conjunction with

This is true because we know from Example 1

If f(x) = ex, then f (n+1)(x) = ex for all n.

If d is any positive number and |x| d,

Notice that the same constant M = ed works

It follows from the Squeeze Theorem

for all values of x.

We have f (n)(2) = e2.

As in Example 2, we can verify

The first is better if we are interested in

The second is better if x is near 2.

f '(0) f ''(0) 2 f '''(0) 3

It follows that Rn(x) 0 as n .

So, sin x is equal to the sum of its Maclaurin

We could proceed directly as in Example 4.

However, its easier to differentiate the Maclaurin

So, Theorem 2 in Section 11.9 tells us

These equations are remarkable because they say

Instead of computing derivatives and substituting

That pattern repeats

Just replace x by x /3 in Equation 14.

It is best to use the Maclaurin series for values of x

In other words, the coefficients are uniquely

This series is called the binomial series.

These numbers are called the binomial

It is possible to prove this by showing that