Chapter 7

Earth and the Terrestrial Worlds

 Earths Atmospheres
Primordial
Prehistoric
Modern
Future???
 Mercury

craters
smooth plains,
cliffs
 Venus

volcanoes
few craters

Radarviewofatwin
peakedvolcano
 Mars

some craters
volcanoes
riverbeds?
 Moon

craters
smooth plains
 Earth

volcanoes
craters
mountains
riverbeds
Why have the planets turned out
so differently, when they formed
at the same time from the same
materials?
 7.1 Earth as a Planet
Our Goals for Learning
Why is Earth geologically active?
What processes shape Earths
surface?
How does Earths atmosphere affect
the planet?
Why is Earth geologically active?
Why is Earth geologically active?

Short answer: the Earth is big enough to still have a

hot interior.

So what do we know about the interior of the Earth

and why is it hot?
Internal Structure, by density
 Internal structure, by rock
strength

The lithosphere is the cool rigid rock that

forms a planets outer layer: the crust and
some of the mantle.

The lithosphere floats on the lower layers.

 The thickness of the lithosphere
controls many geological processes
Internal Structure of the
Terrestrial Planets
 Sources of Internal Heat
1) Gravitational
potential energy of
accreting
planetesimals
2) Differentiation
3) Radioactivity
 Why do water and oil separate?

A. Water molecules repel oil molecules

electrically.
B. Water is denser than oil, so oil floats on
water.
C. Oil is more slippery than water, so it slides
to the surface of the water.
D. Oil molecules are bigger than the spaces
between water molecules.
 Why do water and oil separate?

A. Water molecules repel oil molecules

electrically.
B. Water is denser than oil, so oil floats on
water.
C. Oil is more slippery than water, so it slides
to the surface of the water.
D. Oil molecules are bigger than the spaces
between water molecules.
 Differentiation
Layers ordered by density
Highest density on the bottom
Gravity sorts materials by density.

Differentiation converts gravitational

potential energy to heat.
 What cools off faster?
A. A grande-size cup of Starbucks coffee
B. A teaspoon of capuccino in the same cup.
 What cools off faster?
A. A grande-size cup of Starbucks coffee
B. A teaspoon of capuccino in the same
cup.
 What cools off faster?
A. A big terrestrial planet.
B. A tiny terrestrial planet.
 What cools off faster?
A. A big terrestrial planet.
B. A tiny terrestrial planet.

Why?
 What happens to Silly Putty if
you pull it VERY SLOWLY?
A. It stretches.
B. It breaks.
C. Nothing.
 What happens to Silly Putty if
you pull it SHARPLY?
A. It stretches.
B. It breaks.
C. Nothing.
 Do rocks s-t-r-e-t-c-h?

A. No - rock is rigid and cannot deform

without breaking.
B. Yes - but only if it is molten rock.
C. Yes - rock under strain may slowly
deform.
 Do rocks s-t-r-e-t-c-h?

A. No - rock is rigid and cannot deform

without breaking.
B. Yes - but only if it is molten rock.
C. Yes - rock under strain may slowly
deform.
Heat Drives Geological Activity
Convection: hot rock
rises, cool rock falls.

1 cycle takes 100

million years on
Earth.
 A large planet
Is still warm inside
Has a convecting mantle
Has a thinner, weaker lithosphere
Has molten rock nearer the surface

which makes it more geologically active

 Comparing the Planets

Which planets have the most and least

geological activity?
 Planetary magnetic fields

Moving charged particles create magnetic fields.

So can a planets interior, if the core it electrically
conducting, convecting, and rotating
 Earths Magnetosphere
Earths magnetic fields protects us from
charged particles from the Sun
The charged particles can create aurorae
(Northern lights)
 If the planet core is cold, do you
expect it to have magnetic fields?

A. Yes, refrigerator magnets are cold, and

they have magnetic field.
B. No, planetary magnetic fields are
generated by moving charges around, and
if the core is cold, nothing is moving.
 If the planet core is cold, do you
expect it to have magnetic fields?

A. Yes, refrigerator magnets are cold, and

they have magnetic field.
B. No, planetary magnetic fields are
generated by moving charges around,
and if the core is cold, nothing is
moving.
 How do we know what is inside
the Earth?
A. We can drill deep inside the Earth.
B. We can use optical fibers to see deep
inside the Earth.
C. X-ray machines allow us to view the
inside of the Earth.
D. Seismic waves generated by earthquakes
probe the Earths interior.
 How do we know what is inside
the Earth?
A. We can drill deep inside the Earth.
B. We can use optical fibers to see deep
inside the Earth.
C. X-ray machines allow us to view the
inside of the Earth.
D. Seismic waves generated by
earthquakes probe the Earths interior.
What processes shape Earths
surface?
 What processes shape Earths
surface?
1) Impact cratering
2) Volcanism
3) Tectonics
4) Erosion
Impact Cratering
 Impact Cratering
Moon must be hit as
often as Earth.
Where are Earths
craters?

Erased by volcanic
activity and erosion.

The more craters, the

older the surface
 Volcanism
Molten rock rises when
it is:
Less dense than its
surroundings.
Squeezed by its
surroundings.
Pushed by expanding
trapped gas (water
vapor, CO2, N2, H2S,
SO2)
 Volcanism
Erases other geological features
Provided gas for our atmosphere
Provided water for our oceans
Why doesnt Mars have as much
volcanic activity as Earth?
A. Its too far from the Sun, so it cooled off
faster.
B. Its smaller than the Earth, so it cooled off
faster.
C. It might, we just havent seen them erupt
yet.
Why doesnt Mars have as much
volcanic activity as Earth?
A. Its too far from the Sun, so it cooled off
faster.
B. Its smaller than the Earth, so it cooled
off faster.
C. It might, we just havent seen them erupt
yet.
 Tectonics and Plate Tectonics
Tectonics: any surface reshaping from forces
on the lithosphere
Internal Heat Required!

Plate tectonics: pieces of lithosphere moving

around

Only Earth has plate tectonics.

 Erosion

Wearing down or building up of geological features by wind, water

and ice (weather)
Important on Earth - why?
How does Earths atmosphere
affect the planet ?
 How does Earths atmosphere
affect Earth?
1) Erosion (already mentioned)
2) Protection from radiation
3) Changes the surface temperature:
greenhouse effect
4) Makes the sky blue!
 Radiation Protection
All X-ray light
absorbed very high in
the atmosphere.
Ultraviolet light
absorbed by ozone
(O3)
The Greenhouse Effect
How does the greenhouse effect
alter surface temperature?
Earths atmosphere absorbs light at most wavelengths.
Greenhouse
effect:

Certain
molecules let
sunlight through
but trap escaping
infrared photons

(H2O, CO2, CH4)

 A Greenhouse Gas
Any gas that absorbs infrared

Greenhouse gas: molecules with 2 different types

of elements (CO2, H2O, CH4)

Not a greenhouse gas: molecules with single or 2

atoms of the same element (O2, N2)
 Greenhouse Effect: Bad?
The Earth is much warmer because of the
greenhouse effect than it would be without
an atmospherebut so is Venus.
 What have we learned?
Why is Earth geologically
active?
Internal heat drives
geological activity, and Earth
retains plenty of internal heat
because of its relatively large
size for a terrestrial world.
This heat causes mantle
convection and keeps Earths
lithosphere thin, ensuring
active surface geology. It also
keeps part of Earths core
melted, and the circulation of
this molten metal creates
Earths magnetic field.
 What have we learned?
What processes shape Earths surface?
The four major geological processes are
impact cratering, volcanism, tectonics, and
erosion. Earth has experienced many
impacts, but most craters have been erased
by other processes. We owe the existence of
our atmosphere and oceans to volcanic
outgassing. A special brand of tectonics
plate tectonicsshapes much of Earths
surface. Ice, water, and wind drive rampant
erosion on our planet.
 What have we learned?
How does Earths atmosphere
affect the planet?
Two crucial effects are (1) protecting the
surface from dangerous solar radiation
ultraviolet is absorbed by ozone and X
rays are absorbed high in the
atmosphere and (2) the greenhouse
effect, without which the surface
temperature would be below freezing.
 7.2 Mercury and the Moon:
Geologically Dead
Our Goals for Learning
Was there ever geological activity on the
Moon or Mercury?
Was there ever geological
activity on the Moon or
Mercury?
 Moon

Some volcanic activity 3 billion years ago must have

flooded lunar craters, creating lunar maria.
The Moon is now geologically dead.
 Mercury

Plenty of craters - including a huge basin

Smooth plains from volcanism (recent or long
ago???)
 Did Mercury shrink?

Steep long cliffs formed when the core

cooled, shrinking the planet by ~20 km.
Mercury is now geologically dead.
 What have we learned?
Was there ever geological
activity on the Moon or Mercury?
Both the Moon and Mercury had
some volcanism and tectonics when
they were young. However, because
of their small sizes, their interiors
long ago cooled too much for
ongoing geological activity.
 7.3 Mars: A Victim of Planetary
Freeze-drying
Our Goals for Learning
What geological features tell us that water
once flowed on Mars?
Why did Mars change?
 Mars vs. Earth
50% Earths radius, 10% Earths mass
1.5 A.U from the Sun
Axis tilt about the same as Earth.
Similar rotation period.
Orbit is more elliptical than Earths: seasons
more extreme in the south than the north.
Thin CO2 atmosphere: little greenhouse
Main Difference seems to be:

Mars is SMALLER!
What geological features tell us
water once flowed on Mars?
Surface of Mars appears to have ancient river beds
 Eroded
crater

Condition of craters indicates surface history

Closeup of eroded crater
Volcanoesasrecentas180millionyearsago
Pasttectonicactivity
Low-lying regions may once have had oceans
Low-lying regions may once have had oceans
Opportunity
Spirit
 2004 Opportunity Rover provided strong evidence for abundant
liquid water on Mars in the distant past.
How could Mars have been warmer and wetter in the past?
Today, most water
lies frozen
underground (blue
regions)

Some scientists
believe accumulated
snowpack melts to
carve gullies even
today
Why did Mars change?
 Would terraforming Mars
work?
Yes
No
 What have we learned?
What geological features
tell us that water once
flowed on Mars?
Dry river channels, rock-
strewn floodplains, and
eroded craters all show that
water once flowed on Mars,
though any periods of
rainfall seem to have ended
at least 3 billion years ago.
Mars today still has water
ice underground and in its
polar caps, and could
possibly have pockets of
underground liquid water.
 What have we learned?
Why did Mars change?
Marss atmosphere must once have been much
thicker with a much stronger greenhouse
effect, so change must have occurred due to
loss of atmospheric gas. Much of the lost gas
probably was stripped away by the solar wind,
which was able to reach the atmosphere as
Mars cooled and lost its magnetic field and
protective magnetosphere. Water was probably
also lost because ultraviolet light could break
apart water molecules in the atmosphere, and
the lightweight hydrogen then escaped to
space.
 7.4 Venus: A Hothouse World
Our Goals for Learning
Is Venus geologically active?
Why is Venus so hot?
Is Venus geologically active?
 Is Venus geologically active?

Radar images show lots of volcanic &

tectonic features, as expected for a
large terrestrial planet
 Why is Venus so hot?
Greenhouse effect.

But why is it so prominent on Venus?

Thick CO2 atmosphere of Venus locks heat in
Where is Earths
CO2?
Where is Earths CO2?

Rocks - like limestone

(and some in plant life and
in the ocean)

Why did this happen on

Earth and not on Venus?

Venus lacks oceans to

dissolve the carbon
dioxide and lock it away in
rock on the seafloor

And why is that?

We can understand Venus history by
thinking about what would happen if
Earth were moved to Venus orbit.

How would the initial heating affect

the oceans and the greenhouse effect?
A runaway greenhouse effect would then occur.
Eventually, water molecules would break down & escape to space,
just as apparently happened on Venus
 What have we learned?
Is Venus geologically
active?
Venus almost certainly
remains geologically active
today. Its surface shows
evidence of major volcanic
or tectonic activity in the
past billion years, and it
should retain nearly as much
internal heat as Earth.
However, geological activity
on Venus differs from that on
Earth in at least two key
ways: lack of erosion and
lack of plate tectonics.
Why is Venus so hot?
Venuss extreme surface
heat is a result of its thick,
carbon dioxide atmosphere,
which creates a very strong
greenhouse effect. The
reason Venus has such a
thick atmosphere is its
distance from the Sun: It was
too close to develop liquid
oceans like those on Earth,
where most of the outgassed
carbon dioxide dissolved in
water and became locked
away in rock. Thus, the
carbon dioxide remained in
the atmosphere, creating the
strong greenhouse effect.
 7.5 Earth as a Living Planet
Our Goals for Learning
What unique features on Earth are
important for human life?
How might human activity change our
planet?
What makes a planet habitable?
What unique features of Earth are
important for life?
1) Surface liquid water
2) Atmospheric oxygen
3) Plate tectonics
4) Climate stability
What unique features of Earth are
important to human life?
Earthsdistancefromthe
1) Surface liquid water Sunandmoderate
2) Atmospheric oxygen greenhouseeffectmake
liquidwaterpossible
3) Plate tectonics
4) Climate stability
What unique features of Earth are
important to human life?
1) Surface liquid water
2) Atmospheric oxygen
3) Plate tectonics PHOTOSYNTHESIS
4) Climate stability (plantlife)isrequiredto
makehighconcentrations
ofO2,whichproducesthe
protectivelayerofO3.
What unique features of Earth are
important to human life?
1) Surface liquid water
2) Atmospheric oxygen
Platetectonicsare
3) Plate tectonics animportantstep
inthecarbon
4) Climate stability
dioxidecycle.
The Carbon Dioxide Cycle
What unique features of Earth are
important to human life?
1) Surface liquid water
2) Atmospheric oxygen
3) Plate tectonics
4) Climate stability TheCO2cycleactslikea
thermostatfortheEarths
temperature.
 These unique features are intertwined:

plate tectonics creates climate stability

climate stability allows liquid water
liquid water is necessary for life
life is necessary for atmospheric oxygen

How many other connections between these

can you think of?
How might human activity affect
Earths climate?
Earths ice ages end
as oceans freeze over
and volcanoes release
CO2 into the
atmosphere
Human activity is increasing the concentration of
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, which may
strengthen the greenhouse effect and lead to global
warming.
 What makes a planet habitable?
Located at an optimal distance from the Sun
for liquid water to exist.
 What makes a planet habitable?
Large enough for geological activity to
release & retain water and atmosphere.
 Planetary Destiny

Earth is habitable
because it is large
enough to remain
geologically active
and at the right
distance from the
Sun so oceans could
form.
 What have we learned?
What unique features of Earth are
important for life?
Unique features of Earth on which we depend
for survival are
(1) surface liquid water, made possible by
Earths moderate temperature;
(2) atmospheric oxygen, a product of
photosynthetic life;
(3) plate tectonics, driven by internal heat;
and
(4) climate stability, a result of the carbon
dioxide cycle, which in turn requires plate
tectonics.
 What have we learned?
How might human
activity change our
planet?
Ozone depletion can leave
surface life more vulnerable
to dangerous solar
ultraviolet radiation, and the
high rate of extinctions
could have unknown
consequences. The human
release of greenhouse
gases into the atmosphere
may already be causing
global warming and
certainly would affect the
climate if it continues.
 What have we learned?
What makes a planet habitable?
We can trace Earths habitability to its
relatively large size and its distance from
the Sun.
Its size keeps the internal heat that allowed
volcanic outgassing to lead to our oceans and
atmosphere, and also drives the plate
tectonics that helps to regulate our climate
through the carbon dioxide cycle.
Its distance from the Sun is neither too close
nor too far, thereby allowing liquid water to
exist on Earths surface.