SOIL MECHANICS

REFERENCE: Essential of Soil Mechanics by

MC Carthy
DETERMINATION OF GRADES

QUIZZES: 40%
TERM EXAMINATION: 40%
SEATWORK/ASSIGNMENT: 10%
ATTENDANCE/RECITATION: 10%

100%
PASSING: 60%
 CHAPTER 1
Origin and Characteristics
of Soil Deposits
SOIL is define as the unconsolidated sediments and deposits of solid particles that have
resulted from the disintegration of rock.

ROCK is a natural (deposits) aggregate of minerals that are connected by strong

bonding or attractive forces. For this reason, rock is often considered as a
consolidated materials.

TYPES OF ROCKS
1. Sedimentary Rocks
- are formed from accumulated deposits of soil particles or remains of certain
organism that have become hardened by pressure or cemented by minerals.

2. Metamorphic Rock
- results when any type of existing rock is subjected to metamorphosis that changes
brought about by the combination of heat, pressure and plastic flow so that the
original rock structure and minerals composition change. It can be good material for
construction.

3. Igneous Rock
-resulted from the cooling and hardening of molten rock called magma.
TYPES OF IGNEOUS ROCK
1. Basalt
2. Rhyolites
3. Andesites
4. Granites
5. Syenites
6. Diorites

TYPES OF SEDIMENATRY ROCK

7. Shale
8. Sandstone
9. Limestone
10. Polostones

TYPE OF METAMORPHIC ROCK

11. Limestone
12. Marble
13. Slate
14. Quartz
15. Schist
Two Categories of Soil

1)Residual Soils (sedentary soils) have formed from the weathering of rock or
accumulation of organic material and remain at the location of their origin.
(see fig 1-3)

The weathering process may be attributed to:

(a) Mechanical weathering cludes the disintegration from the effect of wind, rain,
running water, ice frost wedging, tectonic forces (earthquakes)

(b) Chemical weathering is rock decomposition due to chemical reaction in te rock

minerals which occur from exposure to the atmosphere, temperature changes, water
or other minerals.

2) Transported Soils are materials that have been moved from their place of origin. It
may have resulted from the effects of gravity, wind, water, glacier or man.
River Deposits :

Flowing bodies of water are capable of moving considerable volumes of soil by carryng the
particles in suspension or by rolling, sliding and skipping them along the river bottom.

All soils carried and deposited by rivers are classifieds as alluvial deposits. However, glacial
soils carried by rivers created from melting glacial waters and subsequentenly sorted and
dropped according to size to create deposits of stratified glacial drift reffered to as glacio
fluvial deposits or stratified drift. (Discussthe effects in Engg ex. Dagupa 1990 Earthquake)
Beach Deposits:
Ocean beach deposits are predominantly sand materials and are
constantly being changed by the erosive and redistributing effect of
currents and wave action. These current and wave action keep silt and
clay areas, where eventually settle out.

Types of Sand bar deposits along a shoreline

(1)Barrier Bar (2)Submerged Sand Bar (3) Spit

Swamp and Marsh Deposits

Swamp and marsh deposits developed in stagnated areas where
limited depth of water accumulate or where periodic inundation and
drying occurs because of flu action in the ground water level and where
vegetation has the chance to grow.This swamp is an accumulation of
decomposed or partially decomposed aquatic plants in swamp or marsh
areas. Termed muck or peat
Plate Tectonics
The theory of plate tectonics deals with the development,
formation and changes occurring to the earths land and ocean areas
on a long term, large scale basis. Plate tectonics relates to the recent
recognition that the outer shell of the earth is comprised of a small
number large thick plates which mess together like a gigantic puzzle,
but which also move somewhat independently of each other. (THEY
ARE FLOATING)
Effect on Design and Construction
A residual soil formation may be covered by a transported soil, or
reduced by erosive and other transportive forces.
With these matter the type and condition of soil deposits
underlying any proposed construction site must be an important
consideration to the engineering and construction personnel
concerned with the project, for it is the soil or rock that provides the
support of the structure. Proper design for a structure includes
investigation and evaluation of soil conditions underlying the
proposed structure.
 CHAPTER 2
Soil Composition
 COMPOSITION OF SOIL
Soil deposits compressed the accumulated solid particles as the other
material plus void spaces that exists between particles .

WTOTAL = WV+WS MT =MH20 + MS

Since WAIR = 0
WT = WH20 + WS WH20 = VH20 (G x H20

MASS = VGW
WS = VGS W

M = VGS W

Where:
WS = weight of substance
V = volume
G = specific gravity
= unit weight ( lb/ft3 ), (N/m3 ), ( Pa/m )
M = mass
= unit density (kg/m3 ), (gm/cm3 )

wet = W T / VT dry = WS / VT

wet = (WS + WH20)/ VT

wet = MT / VT = ( MS + MH20) / VT dry = M S / VT

WATER CONTENT
w = (WH20 / WS )x 100% WH20 = WS + W

w= (MH20 / MS )x 100% MH20 = W + MS

WT = WS + WH20 e = VOID RATIO

= WS + WSw% e = VV / VS = Vvoids / Vsoil
WT = WS(1+w%)
WV = eVS
MT = MS + MSw%
MT = MS ( 1+w%)

POROSITY (n)
NOTE:
n% = volume of voids / VT
n% = (VV / VT )x 100% - Partially Saturated Soil voids are air
and water
n = Evs / VS + VH20 - Fully saturated Soil void is only
water
e = (n%/100%) / (1- (n%/100%)) = e / (1+e) - Dry Soil void is only air
CHAPTER 3

Soil types and

Soil Structure
Types of Soil

Gravel - 0.25 inch diameter to 2 inches diameter

Sand - less than 0.25 to 2 mm

Silt - 0.074 mm to 0.05 mm

Clay
Shapes of Gravel
Round

Sub-Round

Very Round

Angular

Sub-Angular
Clay and Silt
Clay - a heavy, sticky material from the earth that
is made into different shapes and that becomes
hard when it is baked.

Silt - a sand, soil, mud, etc., that is carried by

flowing water and that sinks to the bottom of a
river, pond, etc.
Types of Clay
Active Clay
Are clays which are not disturbed

Inactive Clay
Dispersive clays or those clays which are disperse
in flowing water
 Basic Properties of Some Typical Clays
Clay Composition Layer Thickness Shape of Mineral,
Mineral General Properties and
Comments
Kaolinite One silica, one 7.5 The most prevalent clay
alumina sheet. Very mineral. Very stable, little
strongly bonded tendency for volume change
together when expected to water.
Kaolinite layers stock
together to form relative
thick particles.

Halloysite One silica, one 10 Sheet of halloysite cut into

alumina sheet. cubes. Strength and plasticity
Make up the layer. are significally affected by
Has a sheet of water drying or removal of the
molecules between water
layers.

Illite Alumina sheet 10 Irregular flake shape.

sandwiches Generally more plastic than
between two silica Kaolinite. Does not expand
sheets to form the when exposed to water
layer unless a deficiency in
potassium exists.
Montmorillnite Alumina sheet 9.5
sandwiches between
two silica sheets to
form the layer. Iron
or magnesium may
replace the alumina
in the aluminum
sheet; aluminum
may replace some
silicons in the silica
sheet.
Chlorite Layers formed of
alumina sheet
sandwiched between
two silica sheet, but
layers are bonded
together with
alumina sheet.
Irregular plate shape
or fibrous. Because
of the weak bond
between layers and
the negative charge
resulting because of
isomorphous
substitution, the clay
readily absorbs
water between
layers.
Irregular plate
shapes. Non
expanding formed
from well-drained
soils and micaceous
rocks in humid
areas.
Nature of Soil
Loose Soil
Natural condition of soil

Dense Soil
When the soil is compacted
Condition of Clay

1. Flocculent

2. Dispersive

3. Transition
Flocculent Clay
Disturb

Undisturb
Dispersive Clay

Fine-grained soils that will deflocculate in still

water and erode if exposed to low-velocity water

Clay that are expansive or swell

Has high volume change characteristic

Also known as lateritic soil

Permafrost

a layer of soil that is always frozen in very cold

regions of the worl

short for permanent frost

 CHAPTER 4
Index Properties and
Classification Tests, and
Soil Classification
Systems
Index Properties

- Index properties refers to those properties of a soil that indicate the type and and
condition of the soil and provide a relationship to the structure properties such as the
strength and compressibility or tendency for swelling and permeability.
Soil Type Index Property Classification Test
Coarse-grain -Range of particle sizes and -Particle size distribution
distribution of sizes (mechanical analysis) by
sieving or sedimentation
test.
-Shape of particles -Visual
-Presence of fine-grained -from mechanical analysis
particles (usually from use of a fine-
mesh sieve)

-In-place density and -In-situ density

relative state of compaction
-Classification
determination, and relative
density test
-From mechanical analysis,
or visual identification
based upon grain size
Fine-grained -Consistency (strength and
type of structure in the
undistributed state)
-Change in consistency due
to remolding.
-Water content.
-Plasticity.
-Classification.
-Presence and type of clay.
-Field or laboratory
evaluation of unconfined
compressive strength or
shear strength (cohesion).
-Unconfined compressive
strength or cohesion for the
remolded soil.
-Water content.
-Atterberg limits (liquid
limit and plastic limit).
-From visual identification
and Atterberg limits.
-Indirectly from
determination of plasticity
and change in consistency,
and/or directly from a clay
mineral analysis.
Sieve Size Sieve Opening Percent Filter by
Weight

#4 4.76 96

#10 2.00 80

#20 0.84 52

#40 0.42 38

#60 0.25 25

#100 0.149 12

#200 0.074 5
RELATIVE DENSITY

Where:
emaz = void ratio of the soil in its loosest condition
emin = void ratio of the soil in its densest condition
eo = void ratio of the soil in the natural condition or condition in question

Where:
min = dry unit weight in the loosest condition

max = dry unit weight in the densest condition

o = dry unit weight in condition in question

 CHAPTER 5
Movement of Water
Through Soil: Basic
Principle
PERMEABILITY
- Soil being a particulate material, has many pore or void spaces existing between
the soil grain because of the irregular shape of the individual particles. In mass of
particles that are rounded and roughly equidimensional in shape such that gravels,
sands, and silts, or are platey of flake-like, such as clays,the pore spaces are inter
connected.

FACTORS AFFECTING FLOW

The actual path taken by the fluid particle as it flows through the soil or the void
spaces from one point toward another in a tortuous effect and erratic one in most soil
because of the random arrangement of soil grains. It is highly probable that the direction
of the flow vary considerably.
The factors that affect the flow of fluid through soil are known, but the influence of
all factors are not been clearly establish the factor include:

1. The pressure difference between the two points where flow is occurring.
2. The density and viscosity of the fluid.
3. The size and shape and number of pore openings.
4. The numerological, electrochemical, or other pertinent properties of fluid and soil
particle.
Capillarity

The rise and fall of the water in the soil. The

groundwater table is the level to which
underground water will rise in an observation well
pit or other open excavation into the earth. All
voids or pores in soil located below the
groundwater table would be filled with water.
Permeability of Natural Deposits

h1 K1

h2 K2

h3 K3

(A) Flow Parallel to Bedding Plane

Q= V1h1+V2h2+v3h3.

Ave. Velocity
Q/n= (1/n) (V1hi+V2h2+v3h3)

Ave Velocity = 1/n (k1 i h1 +k2 i h2 + k3 i h3 ) ----(1)

Therefore V1 = k1 i (i is the same for all layers

 For horizontal direction
V= kHi ---(2)

Equating 1 and 2

KH= ------ (3)

(b) Flow for normal bedding planes

H= H1+H2+H3.
=ih1 + ih2 + ih3 -----------(4)

R= H/h (kv)

V1 = k1 i ------ (a)

Sub (a) at equation (4)

H=h1 () +h2 () +h3() ..(5)

But H= -----(b)

Equating (b) to (5)

Kv= h

+++.

Let:
H- total head loss through deposit

h1,h2,..- head loss through different stratum

 CHAPTER 6
Movement of Water
through
Soil:Practical Effects
Flow of Subsurface Water
The flow of water beneath the ground surface through all soils
except coarse gravel and larger materials occur as laminar flow.

Darcys Law
Law that can be applied to determine the rate and quantity of flow
and the seepage sources forces results from this flow

q=kiA
Where:
i=Hydraulic gradient
k= coefficient of permeability
A= cross sectional area
Quicksand
This condition occurs at location where a sand or cohesion silt
deposit is subjected to the seepage force caused by upward flow of
groundwater.

Drainage
Among the more common problems in construction work is need
to handle subsurface water encountered during the construction
sequence, and to handle subsurface water after construction so that
the completed facility is not damaged nor its usefulness impaired
Dewatering Shallow Excavations
For construction of shallow foundations and for other excavations
of limited depth made in coarse soil, open drainage or inceptors
ditches can be expedient and relatively inexpensive method for
lowering the groundwater table s slight distance

Dewatering Intermediate Depths

Where excavations in coarse-grained and silty soils are to extend
more than a few feet below groundwater level.
Dewatering Intermediate Depths methods:

1) Well points
2) Vacuum Dewatering
3) Electro Osmosis
4) Deep Drainage
5) Consolidation Drainage
6) Drainage after construction
7) Foundation Drains
8) Blanket Drains
9) Interceptor Drains
 Chapter 7
Combined Stresses in Soil
Masses : Stress at a Point
and Mohrs Circle
Stress at a Point Analytical Development

The stress acting on any plane passed through a point

consist of a normal stress and a shearing stress. Depending
on the type of external loading causing the stress condition
it is possible for the shear or the normal stress or both to
be zero on some planes.
a
b 1

(7-1) Incremental
element with
1

representative

stresses assumed for

analysis of *stress at
1

b point*
a
 b 7-2Method of rotating
incremental element

a
to determine stresses
1
on different planes of

study.

1
1

1
a

b
 Area =1
1
Area = 1 x sin

Fn
=
n
x
Ar
F3 = 3 X Area

ea

n
n

3
=
X
C

1 Area=1x cos

F1= 1 x Area

Basic step in determining stresses on a

random plane through a point in terms of
known principal stresses.
Mohrs Circle

The varying values of normal stress and shear stress

corresponding to differing values of can be determined
using the (7-1)and (7-2) .If the combination of normal and
shear stress resulting from each value of is plotted as a
point on a coordinate system where the horizontal axis
represents shear stress, the locus of many plotted points
will form a circle.


Shear stress
r
Normal stress

Method of representing the combination

of normal and shear stresses acting on any
plane through an incremental element of
shear- stress-normal stress coordinates
Chapter 8
Subsurface
Stresses
Stresses Caused by the Soil Mass:

Vertical Stresses
in a soil mass having a horizontal surface, the
vertical stress caused by the soil at a point below
the surface is equal to the weight of the soil lying
directly above the point.

= t Z
 Ground Surface

Ground
surface Stratum A zA A= unit

z
Stratum B
zB B

Stratum C zC v

Unit area

(A) (B)
= t Z v= AzA+BzB+c zC
Horizontal(Lateral) Stresses
The magnitude of vertical stress is relatively simple to determine
when the ground surface is level.

Horizontal soil pressure H

K=
Vertical soil pressure V

Where:
K= coefficient lateral earth pressure
Westergaard Stress Distribution
Some sedimentary soil deposits consist of alternating
thin layer of sandy soil and fined grain soil. It provide a
better means for evaluating the subsurface stresses.

V=
Q
Z2[1+2()2]3/2
Boussinesq Stress Distribution
One of the methods in common use for
calculating stresses that result in a soil mass from
a surface loading is based upon the work of
Boussinesq, a nineteenth-century french
mathematician.

3Q()
V=
2 (r2 + Z2 ) 5/2
Sixty-Degree Approximation
A method in wide use for making rough
estimates of subsurface stresses resulting from a
loaded foundation area is the so called 60-degree
approximation.

Q
V =
(B+Z)(W+Z)
 Application for Foundation Loading
Sixty Degree Approximation
Layered Soils having Different Properties
Effect Foundation Installation below finished
grade
Effect of changing the surface grade
Chapter 9
Settlement Soil Volume
Change and
Consolidation
Compressibility

Its the term applied to one-dimensional

volume changes that occur in cohesive voids that
are subjected to compressive loading. This
property of a fine-grained soil can be determined
directly by performing a laboratory compression
test.

Consolidation
The compression of clay deposits usually occurs
gradually when new loading is applied. The causes
for this are related to the low permeability of these
fine-grained soils and condition of their usual
occurrence in nature.

cy = (note : Unit for c = )

Where
e= void ratio (dimensionless value)
k= coeff of permeability (cm/sec , ft/min , ft/day)
= coeff of compressibility (ft2/lb)
= unit weight of water (lb/ft3 )
Surcharging

The situation may exist where , because of compressibilty

or weak subsoils, a proposed structure would undergo
settlements that would exceed tolerable limits.

Wick drains

A practical development of the 1970s was the

prefabricated band drains consisting of synthetic fabrics
and including a permeable core.
Chapter 10
Shear Strength
Theory
 Shearing stress of soil deposits always refers to
the resistance along a plane that passes between
or along surfaces (but not through particle).
Direct Shear
The direct shear apparatus for performing
single shear is essentially a rectangular or circular
box having separated lower and upper halves. (See
Fig. 10-1a)
Typical plotted
representation of
Sample Area(A)
Shear Force (S)

shearing stress versus

Shear stress()

shearing displacement
data
=

Shearing displacement()
Triaxial Compression Test

The most popular test for determining the

shearing strength of soils.
Pc +P

Stress combination
acting on
incremental element
of soil subjected to
Pc triaxial testing
Pc

Pc +P
Unconfined Compression Stress

The unconfined compression test is triaxial

compression test, but a type where the all around
confining pressure is zero.

Vane Shear Stress

Vane shear stress are coming into wider use for
determining the in situ strength of cohesive soils. It is
apparatus that consist of thin bladed vanes that can
pushed into the soil with minimum of disturbance.
Shear test result plotted on Mohrs Circle
coordinates

Results of the direct shear and triaxial tests can be

plotted graphically (or semi graphically) on shear stress
versus normal stress coordinate system. They are the same
coordinates used for Mohrs circle plots (Chapter 7)
Shear Stress

Stress Strain result when

normal load is N1

Shear strain
Shear Stress

Normal stress
 Strength or Failure Envelop
If a series of direct shear test were performed on
different samples of homogeneous soil and the normal
loading were different for each test, the result plotted on f
versus coordinates could be shown in Fig 10-13

Mohrs circle is drawn

Deviator stress

Maxm deviator stress knowing 3 and 1- 3

Shear stress
3

Axial Strain 3 1
Normal stress