Axial and Radial Flow

Turbines

Dr. Venkat Chintala

Associate Professor, Mech. Engg. Deptt.

Head, Institute of Alternate Energy Research (IAER), R&D
CoEs, UPES
 Contents
Stage performance Degree of reaction
h-s diagram & efficiency Overall turbine
performance Performance
characteristics
Vortex theory
Design process
Prediction of performance of simple gas
turbines Off Design performance
Matching procedure.
Blade cooling, Blade materials,

Machinery
Positive
Displacement
Working fluid is confined
within a boundary.
Energy transfer is by volume
changes due to the
movement of the
boundary.
Fluid
Dynamic
Working fluid is not confine
within a boundary.
Energy transfer is by dynamic
effects of the rotor on
the fluid stream.
* Radial-Flow - Also called Centrifugal.
- Radial flow path.
- Large change in radius from inlet to outlet.
* Axial-Flow
- Flow path nearly parallel to the axis of rotation.
- Radius of the flow path does not very
significantly.
* Mixed-Flow
- Flow path radius changes only moderately.
 Axial and Radial Flow Turbines
Radial
Axial
(Centrifugal)
Used for large engines Used for small engines

Large mass flow rates Small mass flow rates

Better efficiencies Lower efficiencies

Expensive Cheap

Difficult to manufacture Easy to manufacture

Most of the gas turbines employ the axial flow

turbines.

The radial turbine can handle low mass flows more

efficiently than the axial flow machines.
 Axial vs. Radial Machines

Need to determine what type of turbine is most efficient for application

- function of Ns for both compressors and turbine 6
Comparison of the Axial-Flow and Radial-
Flow Compressors
Axial-Flow compressors do not significantly change the
direction of the flow stream, thus Axial-Flow
Compressor allows for multiple stages. Radial-Flow
Compressors can not be staged.
While the Radial-Flow Compressor has a larger
Compressor Pressure Ratio (CPR) per stage, the
multi-stages of the Axial-Flow compressor allows for a
larger overall CPR.
The frontal area for a given air flow rate is smaller for
an Axial-Flow Compressor than for a Radial-Flow
Compressor.
The Axial-Flow Compressor has a higher efficiency.
Disadvantages are the higher cost to manufacture the
Axial-Flow Compressor, and the Radial-flow
 Axial-Flow Compressors
The compressors in most gas turbine applications,
especially units over 5MW, use axial flow compressors.
An axial flow compressor is one in which the flow enters
the compressor in an axial direction (parallel with the
axis of rotation), and exits from the gas turbine, also in
an axial direction.
The axial-flow compressor compresses its working fluid
by first accelerating the fluid and then diffusing it to
obtain a pressure increase.
The fluid is accelerated by a row of rotating airfoils
(blades) called the rotor, and then diffused in a row of
stationary blades (the stator).
The diffusion in the stator converts the velocity
increase gained in the rotor to a pressure increase.
A compressor consists of several stages:

1. A combination of a rotor followed by a stator make-up a

stage in a compressor;

2. An additional row of stationary blades are frequently

used at the compressor inlet and are known as Inlet
Guide Vanes (IGV) to ensue that air enters the first-
stage rotors at the desired flow angle, these vanes are
also pitch variable thus can be adjusted to the varying
flow requirements of the engine; and

3. In addition to the stators, another diffuser at the exit of

the compressor consisting of another set of vanes
further diffuses the fluid and controls its velocity
entering the combustors and is often known as the Exit
Guide Vanes (EGV).
 In an axial flow compressor, air passes from one stage
to the next, each stage raising the pressure slightly.

By producing low pressure increases on the order of

1.1:1 to 1.4:1, very high efficiencies can be obtained.

The use of multiple stages permits overall pressure

increases of up to 40:1 in some aerospace
applications and a pressure ratio of 30:1 in some
Industrial applications.

The increase in gas turbine efficiency is dependent on

two basic parameters:
1. Increase in Pressure Ratio
2. Increase in Firing Temperature
Axial Flow Compressor Characteristics
The Euler Turbine Equation

Figure :Control volume for Euler Turbine Equation

The Euler turbine equation relates the power added to or

removed from the flow, to characteristics of a rotating blade
row.

The equation is based on the concepts of conservation of

 Applying conservation of angular momentum, we note that the torque (T)
must be equal to the time rate of change of angular momentum in a
streamtube that flows through the device
Linear momentum = m velocity
Angular momentum = radius of rotation
m vel.

This is true whether the blade row is rotating or not.

The sign matters (i.e. angular momentum is a vector- positive means it is

spinning in one direction, negative means it is spinning in the other
direction). So depending on how things are defined, there can be positive
and negative torques, and positive and negative angular momentum.

Torque is positive when --

 If the blade row is moving, then work is done on/by the fluid. The work per unit
time, or power (P) is the torque multiplied by the angular velocity (w) :

Eq.( 1)

If torque and angular velocity are of like sign, work is being done on the fluid (a
compressor).

If torque and angular velocity are of opposite sign work is being extracted from
the fluid (a turbine).

If the tangential velocity increases across a blade row (where positive tangential
velocity is defined in the same direction as the rotor motion) then work is added
to the flow (this happens in a compressor).

If the tangential velocity decreases across a blade row (where positive tangential
velocity is defined in the same direction as the rotor motion) then work is
removed from the flow (this happens in a turbine).
 Eq.( 2)

From Eqs. (1) and (2)

Euler Turbine Equation

Euler Turbine Equation relates the temperature ratio (and hence the
pressure ratio) across a turbine or compressor to the rotational speed and
the change in momentum per unit mass.
 If angular momentum increases
across a blade row, then
and work was done on the fluid (a
compressor).

If angular momentum decreases

across a blade row, then and
work was done by the fluid (a
turbine).
 Conclusions from Euler Turbo-machinery
Equation
A Change in total enthalpy is proportional to
change in tangential flow speed or tangential
engine speed.
For engines with little change in mean radius (inlet
to exit), the change in total enthalpy is due to
change in tangential flow velocity of the fluid.
Creates a small change in enthalpy of fluid.
For engines with large change in radius, the
change in enthalpy is to a large degree due to the
change in radius.
The centrifugal/centripetal effect.
Creates Large change in enthalpy of fluid.
How to select a suitable type of action for a
resource/demand.
 Axial flow compressor

Figure A typical multistage axial flow compressor (Rolls-

Royce)
 Figure Schematic representation of an axial flow compressor

An axial compressor is typically made up of many alternating

rows of rotating and stationary blades called rotors and stators,
respectively

The first stationary row (which comes in front of the rotor) is

typically called the inlet guide vanes or IGV. Note that the
IGV also adds no energy to the flow. It is designed to add swirl
in the direction of rotor motion to lower the Mach number of
the flow relative to the rotor blades, and thus improve the
aerodynamic performance of the rotor.
Figure Pressure and velocity profiles through a multi-stage axial
compressor
 Macro Geometric Specification of An
Axial Compressor

The geometry of a compressor can be

categorised into 3 main designs types,
A Constant Outer Diameter (COD),
A Constant Mean Diameter (CMD) or
A Constant Hub Diameter (CID),
 Axial flow turbines
Workingfluidisaccelerated
bythestatoranddecelerated
bytherotor
Boundarylayergrowthand
separationdoesnotlimit
stageloadingasinaxial
compressor

Expansion occurs in stator and in relative frame of

rotor
 Axial Flow Turbine

Figure Schematic of an axial flow turbine

The stator, again does no work. It adds swirl to the flow,
converting internal energy into kinetic energy.

The rotor then extracts work from the flow by removing the kinetic
energy associated with the swirl velocity.
Stagnation
properties
Thermodynamics of An Axial flow Compressor
Stage
p03 = p02
T03 = T02
p3
Va32/cp

Va22/cp
p2
T

Vw2 r2 Vw1r1
P T m
T01
p01
Va12/cp

p1 T1
s
 Adiabaticexpansionprocess
(workextractedfromsystem
signconventionforadded
work=+w)
Rotor=>w=cp(T03T02)<=>
w=cp(T02T03)

Stator=>0=cp(T02T01)
=>T02=T01
Turbine loss coefficients:
Nozzle(stator)losscoefficients:
T2 T2
N 2
C2
2c p
p01 p02
YN
p02 p2

Nozzle(rotor)losscoefficients:
T3 T3
R
V22
2c p
p02,rel p03, rel
YR
p03,rel p3
Governing equations and assumptions

Relativeandabsoluterefererence
framesarerelatedby: V C U
Weonlystudydesignswhere:
Ca2=Ca3
C1=C3
Werepeatthederivationoftheoreticalworkused
forradialandaxialcompressors:

r3, r2 = radius of rotation

Rate of change of angular momentum V1, V2, V3=Tangential
Cw3 r3 Cw 2 r2 Theoretical torque velocities
Ca2,Ca3=radial
Theoretical work Cw3 r3 Cw 2 r2 C w3U 3 Cw 2U 2
components Cw2, Cw3=
Assume change of
direction for relative whirl components
velocity
U =mean blade speed
Flow at constant radius U Cw3 Cw2 U C w3 C w 2
 Principle of angular momentum
Stageworkoutputw:
w U C w 2 C w3
U Ca 2 tan 2 Ca 3 tan 3

Caconstant:
w U Ca 2 tan 2 Ca 3 tan 3
UCa tan 2 tan 3
 Energyequation
Combine derived equations =>
w UCa tan 2 tan 3
Energyequation:
w c p T0, stage
Wehavearelationbetweentemperaturedrop
andbladeangles!!!:
c p T0, stage UCa tan 2 tan 3 (7.3)
 Dimensionless parameters
Bladeloadingcoefficient,temperaturedrop
coefficient: c p T0, stage

1 2
U
2
UCa

1 2
tan 2 tan 3
U
2
2Ca
tan 2 tan 3 (7.6)
U
T2 T3
Degreeofreaction: R
T1 T3
Dimensionless parameters
Finally,theflowcoefficient:
Ca

U
Currentaircraftpractice(according
toC.R.S):
0.8 1.0
3.0 5.0
R 0.5
Aircraftpractice=>relativelyhigh
valuesonflowandstageloading
coefficientslimitefficiencies
 Aerofoil Geometry
Since airfoils are employed in accelerating and
diffusing the air in a compressor, much of the theory
and research concerning the flow in axial compressors
are based on studies of isolated airfoils.

1: zero lift line

2: leading edge
3: nose circle
4: camber
5: thickness
(Chord) 6: upper surface
7: trailing edge
8: main camber line
9: lower surface
 The airfoils are curved, convex on one side and
concave on the other, with the rotor rotating
toward the concave side.

The chordline of an airfoil is a straight line drawn from

the leading edge to the trailing edge of the airfoil,
and the chord is the length of the chordline.

The camberline is a line drawn halfway between the

two surfaces, and the distance between the
camberline and the chordline is the camber of the
blade.

The camber angle is the turning angle of the

camber line. The blade shape is described by
specifying the ratio of the chord to the camber at
some particular length on the chordline, measured
 The aspect ratio AR is the ratio of the blade length to the
chord length. The term hub-to-tip ratio is frequently used
instead of aspect ratio. The aspect ratio becomes important
when three-dimensional flow characteristics are discussed.

The blade inlet angle 1 is the angle formed by a line drawn

tangent to the forward end of the camber line and the axis of
the compressor.
The blade outlet angle 2 is the angle of a line drawn
tangent to the rear of the camberline. Subtracting 2 from
1 gives the blade camber angle. The angle that the
chordline makes with the axis of the compressor is , the
setting or stagger angle of the blade.
High-aspect ratio blades are often pretwisted so that at full
operational speed the centrifugal forces acting on the blades
will untwist the blades to the designed aerodynamic angle.

The pretwist angle at the tip for blades with AR ratios of

about four is between two and four degrees.
 The air inlet angle 1, the angle at which
incoming air approaches the blade, is different
from 1. The difference between these two
angles is the incidence angle i.
The angle of attack is the angle between the
inlet air direction and the blade chord.
As the air is turned by the blade, it offers
resistance to turning and leaves the blade at an
angle greater than 2. The angle at which the
air does leave the blade is the air outlet angle
2. The difference between 2 and 2 is the
deviation angle .
The air turning angle is the difference between
1 and 2 and is sometimes called the
deflection angle.
 Elementary Airfoil Theory

Angle of attack

Suction

The concave side is called the

pressure side of the blade, and the Pressure
convex side is called the suction
side of the blade. Drag
 When a single airfoil is parallel to the
velocity of a flowing gas, the air flows
over the airfoil. The air divides around
the body, separates at the leading
edge, and joins again at the trailing
edge of the body.
The main stream itself suffers no
permanent deflection from the
presence of the airfoil. Forces are
applied to the foil by the local
distribution of the steam and the
friction of the fluid on the surface. If the
airfoil is well designed, the flow is
 Measurement of the pressure at various points on the surface of the
airfoil will reveal a pressure distribution.
The vectorial sum of these pressures will produce some resultant force
acting on the blade. This resultant force can be resolved into a lift
component L at right angles to the undisturbed air stream, and a drag
component D, moving the airfoil in the direction of flow motion. This
resultant force is assumed to act through a definite point located in
the airfoil so that the behavior will be the same as if all the individual
components were acting simultaneously.

Using such observed values, it is possible to define relations between

the forces

where:
L = lift force; A = surface area; D = drag force; = fluid density;
CL = lift coefficient; V = fluid velocity; CD = drag coefficient
Lift & Drag forces
 Total pressure and
temperature
Static pressure and
temperature

Absolute velocity

Variation of Temperature Velocity, and Pressure

through an
Axial-Flow Compressor
Cascade Theory
 Axial Flow Compressor Stage

Rate of Change of Momentum: Inlet Velocity Triangle

F m Vw2 Vw1 m Vf 2 tan2 Vf 1tan1

Power Consumed by an Ideal

Moving Blade

P m U Vf 2 tan 2 Vf 1tan1

Outlet Velocity Triangle

As stated earlier, an axial-flow compressor operates on

the principle of putting work into the incoming air by
 Energy Analysis of An Axial Flow
Compressor Stage

Change in Enthalpy of fluid in

Inlet Velocity Triangle
moving blades :

P m h02 h01 m c p T02 T01
V 2 V 2
m c p T2 a2 T1 a1
2c p 2c p

Va2 2 2
Va1

m c p T2 T1
2c 2c
p p

Va2
2 2
Va1
m h2 h1

2 2
Outlet Velocity Triangle
 Vr12 Vr22
h2 h1
2 2

Vr12 Vr22
T2 T1
2c p 2c p

T2 1
Isentropic compression in Rotor Blade p 2 p1 p1 1
T1

 Energy Increase

The length of the blades, and the annulus area,

which is the area between the shaft and shroud,
decrease throughout the length of the
compressor. This reduction in flow area
compensates for the increase in fluid density as it
is compressed, permitting a constant axial
velocity.
In an axial flow compressor, air passes from one
stage to the next with each stage raising the
pressure and temperature slightly.
By producing low-pressure increases on the order
of 1.1:1-1.4:1, very high efficiencies can be
obtained. The use of multiple stages permits
overall pressure increases up to 40:1.
 A heuristic approach for a multiple stage gas turbine
compressor would be that the energy rise per stage
would be constant, rather than the commonly held
perception that the pressure rise per stage is
constant. The energy rise per stage can be written as:

where: H1, H2 = Total Inlet and Exit Enthalpy (kJ/kg)

Ns = number of stages

Assuming that the gas is thermally and caloricaly

perfect (cp, and are constant) above equation can be
rewritten as:
where: Tin = Total Inlet Temperature (C)
and
P1, P2 = Total Inlet and Exit Pressure
(bar)
 Degree of reaction

Degree of reaction (R) may be defined for a turbine

as the fraction of overall enthalpy drop (or pressure
drop) occurring in the rotor.

The degree of reaction in an axial-flow compressor is

defined as the ratio of the change of static head in
the rotor to the head generated in the stage:

h2 h1
Degree of Reaction of a Stage: R
h02 h01

Vr12 Vr22
R 2
Vr1 Vr22 Va2
2
Va1
2
 The reaction for a symmetrical stage is fifty percent (50%). The
fifty percent (50%) reaction stage is widely used, since an
adverse pressure rise on either the rotor or stator blade surfaces
is minimized for a given stage pressure rise.
When designing a compressor with this type of blading, the first
stage must be preceded by inlet guide vanes to provide prewhirl,
and the correct velocity entrance angle to the first-stage rotor.
With a high tangential velocity component maintained by each
succeeding stationary row, the magnitude of inlet relative
velocity is decreased. Thus, higher blade speeds and axial-
velocity components are possible without exceeding the limiting
value of 0.70-0.75 for the inlet Mach number. Higher blade
speeds result in compressors of smaller diameter and less weight.
Another advantage of the symmetrical stage comes from the
equality of static pressure rises in the stationary and moving
blades, resulting in a maximum static pressure rise for the stage.
Therefore, a given pressure ratio can be achieved with a
minimum number of stages, a factor in the lightness of this type
of compressor.
 The serious disadvantage of the symmetrical stage is
the high exit loss resulting from the high axial
velocity component. However, the advantages are of
such importance in aircraft applications that the
symmetrical compressor is normally used. In
stationary applications, the symmetrical compressor
is normally not used.
In stationary applications, where weight and frontal
area are of lesser importance, one of the other stage
types is used.
The term asymmetrical stage is applied to stages
with reaction other than 50%. The axial-inflow stage
is a special case of an asymmetrical stage where the
entering absolute velocity is in the axial direction.
The moving blades impart whirl to the velocity of the
leaving flow which is removed by the following stator.
From this whirl and the velocity diagram, the major
part of the stage pressure rise occurs in the moving
 The advantage of a stage with greater than 50%
reaction is the low exit loss resulting from lower axial
velocity and blade speeds. Because of the small static
pressure rise in the stationary blades, certain
simplifications can be introduced such as constant
section stationary blades and the elimination of
interstage seals.
Higher actual efficiencies have been achieved in this
stage type than with the symmetrical stage -
primarily because of the reduced exit loss.
The disadvantages result from a low static pressure
rise in the stationary blades that necessitates a
greater number of stages to achieve a given pressure
ratio and thus creates a heavy compressor.
The lower axial velocities and blade speed, necessary
to keep within inlet Mach number limitations, result in
large diameters.
 Diffusion Factor
The diffusion factor (D) first defined by Lieblien is a blade-
loading criterion:
W1, W2 = relative velocities
V1, V2 = absolute velocities

The diffusion factor should be less than 0.4 for the rotor tip
and less than 0.6 for the rotor hub and the stator.
The distribution of the diffusion factor throughout the
compressor is not properly defined. However, the
efficiency is less in the later stages due to distortions of
the radial velocity distributions in the blade rows.
Experimental results indicate that even though efficiency
is less in the later stages, as long as the diffusion loading
limits are not exceeded, the stage efficiencies remain
relatively high.
Compressible Flow Machines

Owing to compressibility of gas in a

compressor

The degree of reaction for equal pressure rise

in stator and rotor will be greater than 0.5.

The stage total pressure rise will be higher in

order to get equal static pressure rise in stator
and rotor.
Power input to the compressor :

Pact m h03 h01 m c p T03 T01 m c p T02 T01
Inlet Velocity Triangle

Current Practice:
Vf Vf 1 Vf 2

U
tan 1 tan 1 tan 2 tan 2
Vf
Theoretical Power input to the compressor:
Outlet Velocity Triangle

Pth m U Vw2 Vw1 m UVf tan 2 tan1

Pth m UVf tan1 tan 2
For an isentropic compressor:

Pth m c p T03 T01 m UVf tan1 tan 2

Pth m c p T03 T01 m c p T03 T01 m c p T0S
UVf tan1 tan 2
T0s
cp


p 03,iso T0S 1
1
p 01 T01


p 03,act stage T0S 1
1
p 01 T01

UVf tan1 tan 2
1

stage
p03,act cp
1
p01 T01


Vr12
Vr2
2
R 2
Vr1 Vr2
2
Va2
2
Va1
2

U
tan1 tan1 tan 2 tan 2
Vf

Vf tan1 tan1 tan 2

Vr2
cos 2
Need to determine what type of turbine is most efficient for application
- function of Ns for both compressors and turbine

N m&/ 2 N m&/ 2
Ns
h0ideal
3/ 4 3/ 4

1 /
c pT01 1 p02
p01

90
 Compressor Performance Parameters
For a gas compressor, the functional dependence of
compressor exit total/stagnation pressure Ptexit and
the adiabatic compressor efficiency c can be
expressed as follows;

The gas properties of relevance to the compression

process are characterized by the kinematic viscosity
, specific heat ratio , and the gas constant R. The
geometry dependence of the machine is set by the
design and its characteristic size D such as the tip
diameter of compressor.
 Performance Losses in an Axial-Flow Compressor
The losses as mentioned earlier can be further described:

1. Disc friction loss. This loss is from skin friction on the discs that house
the blades of the compressors. This loss varies with different types of
discs.
2. Incidence loss. This loss is caused by the angle of the air and the
blade angle not being coincident. The loss is at a minimum to about an
angle of 4o, after which the loss increases rapidly.
3. Blade loading and profile loss. This loss is due to the negative velocity
gradients in the boundary layer, which gives rise to flow separation.
4. Skin friction loss. This loss is from skin friction on the blade surfaces
and on the annular walls.
5. Clearance loss. This loss is due to the clearance between the blade
tips and the casing.
6. Wake loss. This loss is from the wake produced at the exit of the
rotary.
7. Stator profile and skin friction loss. This loss is from skin friction and
the attack angle of the flow entering the stator.
8. Exit loss. This loss is due to the kinetic energy head leaving the stator.
 Turbo Engine
Turboprop
Comparison
Turbofan Turbojet
Medium-speed Internal Propeller High speed
Moderate-size craft Supersonic speeds Mach 4
High efficiency High bypass airflow Low airflow rate
Limited flight speed Med/High efficiency Low efficiency
Geared transmission No gearbox High op temps

NOTE: Due to the ram compression due to flight speed, the optimum
compressor pressure ratio (CPR) goes to zero around Mach 4.
CPR 30:1 for subsonic flight.
CPR 10:1 @ Mach 2.
Compressor not needed at Mach 4; Ramjet.
 Example
Given a first single Problem
stage of an Axial Compressor with
the following conditions: ambient pressure (Pin) 1
atmosphere, ambient temperature (Tin) 300K, aircraft
cruising speed (Vin) 170m/s, median blade diameter
(D) 0.5m, rotor rpm (Urotor) 8000rpm, turning angle ()
15 degrees, specific heat ratio () 1.4, air mass flow
rate (mdot) 35kg/s, and (Cp) conversion factor 1004
m2/s2*K, calculate the first stage Compressor
m Pressure
Pin 1atm Tin 300K Vin 170 D .5m
Ratio (CPR). s
2
m
Urotor 8000rpm 15deg 1.4 Cp 1004
2
s K
kg
kg 1000gm mdot 35
s
 W1
Vin 1

Blade motion

D 2
U r U 8000
2 60 s
m
U 209.44
s
W x U m
W x 209.44
s
 Step 2.
W1
Vin 1
Calculate the air to
blade relative velocity
U
and the angle between
the relative and actual
air speed.
m
W 1 Wx
2
Vin
2
W 1 269.75
s

Wx
1 atan
V in
1 50.934 deg

 Step 3.
Axial velocity (Vin) does not
W2 change. Calculate relative exit
2
Vin angle(2), then portion of the
relative blade speed (Uw2).
U w2
Calculate relative air speed (W2)

V in
2 1
U w2 V in tan 2 W 2

cos 2

m m
2 35.934 deg U w2 123.214 W 209.956
s 2
s
 Step 4.
Calculate the portion of the
V2 W2 relative blade speed associated
2
Vin with the actual air velocity
(Uv2), the calculate the actual
U v2 U w2
air speed (V2).

m
Uv2 W x Uw2 Uv2 86.226
s
2 2 m
V2 Vin Uv2 V2 190.617
s
The Compressor
1
Pressure Ratio (CPR) is P o2 T o2
T
found from the P o1 o1
isentropic relationship.
To1 is calculated from the following
equation. To2 has to be calculated
from the specific work of the
compressor stage.
2
Vin
To1 Tin
2 Cp To1 314.392 K
 Specific work of the stage is
calculated from the torque Tshaft
wstage
of the shaft, angular mdot
velocity of the blade, and
mass flow rate of the air.
D
Torque of the Tshaft mdot Uv1 Uv2
shaft is: m 2
Uv1 0
s Tshaft 754.476 J
No initial tangential component to
the inlet velocity.
Power Tshaft
2
8000

60 s
Power of the shaft Power 632.068 kW
is:
Specific work Power J
wstage 4
wstage 1.806 10
of the stage is mdot kg
then:

Now To2 can be calculated from the

specific work To1, and the conversion
factor.

wstage
To2 To1 To2 332.38 K
Cp

1
Finally, the Compressorwstage
Pressure Ratio
calculated!!!
To2be
can To1
Cp

1
To2
CPR
To1

CPR 1.215
 Why cooling is needed?

Thermal evaluation high temp. high Efficiency

Metallurgical limitation of material low temp. is allowed
Cooling:
To reduce thermal stresses
Protects the blade and other components from being
subjected to undesirable thermal stresses
To improve thermal performance by allowing high
temp. gases at inlet of turbine (With cooling, high
temp. compatibility of the material increases)

Disadvantages:
Enthalpy loss due to coolant (air) mixed with expanding
gases
Cooling penalty/loss of work due to net temp. reduction
 Sources of cooling

Air from fan

Air from low pressure compressor
Air from secondary flow on CC
Convective cooling
Hot air flows around blades
Blades are cooled with air, which flows
through cooling holes inside blade
Film cooling
Cooling is provided with cooling air,
which is delivered through the holes
on the blade surface.
Cooling with air film is more
efficient as convective cooling

Transpiration cooling
Transpiration cooling is similar technique
of cooling as cooling with air film.
In this case is generated a homogeneous surface
of cooling air on surface of blade
Transpirationally cooled blades have no holes.
Air flow through the porous surface of blade.
Compressor Blade
Materials
List of turbine blade materials
U-500This material was used as a first stage (the most demanding stage)
material in the 1960s, and is now used in later, less demanding, stages.
Rene 77
Rene N5
Rene N6
PWA1484
CMSX-4
CMSX-10

Inconel
IN-738- GE used IN-738 as a first stage blade material from 1971 until 1984, when it
was replaced by GTD-111. It is now used as a second stage material. It was specifically
designed for land-based turbines rather than aircraft gas turbines.
GTD-111Blades made from directionally solidified GTD-111 are being used in
manyGE Energy gas turbines in the first stage. Blades made from equiaxed
GTD-111 are being used in later stages.
EPM-102(MX4(GE),PWA 1497(P&W)) is a single crystal superalloy jointly
developed by NASA, GE Aviation, and Pratt & Whitney for the High speed civil
transport(HSCT). While the HSCT program was cancelled, the alloy is still
being considered for use by GE and P&W.
 Compressor blading is made by forging, extrusion or machining. All
production blades, until the advent of he new Advanced
Gas Turbines, have been made from stainless steels, Type 403 or 403
Cb both having about 12 Cr. This family of alloys has properties
which include good ductility at high strength levels, uniform
properties, and good strength at temperatures up to about 900F
(482C).
Because of the new axial flow compressors which have pressure ratio
of 30:1 to 40:1, and exit temperatures between 1000F 1150F
(538C - 621C), new compressor blade material, a precipitation
hardened, martensitic stainless steel such as 15-5 PH nominal, was
introduced into production for advanced and uprated machines, as
shown in Table 4. This material provides increased tensile strength
without sacrificing stress corrosion resistance. Substantial increases in
the high-cycle fatigue and corrosion fatigue strength are also
achieved with this material, compared with the Type 403 stainless
steel with 12Cr.
 Superior corrosion resistance is also achieved due
to the metals higher concentration of chromium and molybdenum
content. Compressor corrosion results from moisture containing
salts and acids collecting on the blading. During operation,
moisture can be present because of rain, use of evaporative
coolers, fogging
systems, or compressor water washes, or condensation resulting
from humid air being accelerated at the compressor inlet. Moisture
may be present in the compressor during operation up to between
stage 5 and stage 8, where it usually becomes warm enough to
prevent
condensation. When the turbine is not in operation, the
compressor can still become wet if metal temperatures are below
the local dew
point. This can happen to units stored in humid environments. The
chemistry of this moisture deposit, especially the salt in the air
depositing on the blading, determines the severity of the corrosion
phenomenon.
The high temperature blade alloy is normally produced
by vacuum-arc remelting to reduce inclusions, and is
advertised to have
a balanced chemistry that minimizes the formation of
delta-ferrite.

Inclusions and the delta-ferrite would provide planes of

weakness
in that part. It is not uncommon for the mill to supply
forging stock that has first been given a 1900F heat
treatment, just for better
forgeability.
The forged blanks are then usually reheat-treated at
1900F, followed by hardening treatments between
1100F and 1150F depending on the properties sought.
There is a general correlation between hardness and
strength (tensile/fatigue).
Coating of the compressor blades is now very common.
Compressor blades suffer a great amount of corrosion
pitting from impurities in the air stream.

This corrosion pitting has led to blade failures.

Compressor blades in many cases have over 100,000
hours but due to pitting can be reduced considerably to
between 20,000 60,000 hours.

It has been a very common practice for over 30 years

to coat at least the first 5-8 stages depending on the
compressor design.

The first stages are considered to be the wet stages

because many units now use on line water washes, as
well as have evaporative cooling and fogging for power
augmentation.
Coating for these blades is usually consistent of a duplex
type coating, which must be at least 3 mils in thickness.
This coating as most typical coating has a sacrificial
undercoat coating which is placed on the base metal and
is covered by a ceramic coating.

Ni-Cd coating is also used in selected applications, and

new coatings consisting of an aluminum slurry coating
which has a protective ceramic top layer that provides
improved erosion resistance are also being introduced.
This type of coating, as compared to conventional
aluminum slurry coatings, is better in corrosion
protection and substantially better in erosion resistance.
This type of coating also improves the performance of
the gas turbine by reducing the amount of power
consumed by the compressor.

Tests conducted show a reduction of 2%-3% in the power

The aspect ratio of axial flow compressors including
the IGV vary from about AR = 4, to an aspect ratio
of about AR = 0.5.

All IGVs and the first five to eight stages of rotating

and stationary airfoils in the compressor are made
from Martensitic High Temperature Stainless Steel;
or 15-5 PH nominal blade material, the next stages
are usually coated AISI 403 or 403 Cb.
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