WELDING INSPECTOR COURSE

The Indian Institute of Welding

(Baroda Branch)
202, Arkie View Complex, Tower A, Atmajyoti Ashram Road,
Opp. Water Tank, Vadodara 390 023

WELDING METALLURGY
 CONTENTS

Structure of Metals

Structure of Steels

Structure of the Welded Joint and Weldability of Steels

 INTRODUCTION

The foundation of scientific study of metals is called physical metallurgy

Physical metallurgy is that branch of science that deals with the general relationship
between
The composition, structure, and properties of metals and alloys
The changes brought about by thermal, chemical, and mechanical treatment

Physical metallurgy aims at establishing quantitative as well as qualitative relations

between structures and properties of metals
 Common Properties of Metals

Out of more than 106 elements known, 76 are metals

All metals do exhibit some typical properties, common to them:

high thermal and electrical conductivity - due to presence of free electron
positive temperature co-efficient of electrical resistivity
thermo-ionic emission
good reflectivity of light
lend themselves to plastic deformation - due to ordered arrangement of atom
 Why should Welding Technologists learn metallurgy

Welding is mostly done for fabrication of metals and alloys

The final properties of the welded assembly will depend on the metallurgical
structure of the parent metal and the weld.

All welding processes involve heating and cooling of the components being
welded

Thus to ensure a satisfactory welded component, it is necessary to understand

metallurgical structures and how they and the weld thermal cycle, determine
the properties of the weld joint.
 WELDING - MAJOR FABRICATION PROCESS

General Engineering
Construction - Earthmoving equipment, cranes
Infrastructure - Buildings , bridges , roads, flyovers, tunnels
Projects -, refineries, fertilizers, steel plants, chemical & petrochemical plants
Automotive sector - 2- wheelers, cars, trucks, buses
Railways - Coaches, locomotives, wagons
Shipbuilding and aircraft
Power plants & pressure vessels
Consumer durable - Refrigerators, ACs, Almirahs
Defence - Tanks, APCs, Aircraft, Rockets
Food processing - Dairy, brewery, cooking, freezing eqpt.
 MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION

Mild steels, High strength low alloy steels

All general engineering, Infrastructure, Automotive, Shipbuilding, Railways
High tensile steels
Defence, penstocks for hydel plants
Creep resisting steels.
Boilers and piping in thermal power plants
Stainless steels - Austenitic
Chemical & petrochemical plant, refineries, cryogenic plant, food processing,
pharmaceuticals
Aluminium
Light structurals, boats, dairy equipment, busbars
Copper, Nickel and alloys, Titanium
Vessel, piping & heat exchangers in chemicals & food
STRUCTURE OF METALS
STRUCTURE OF METALS

All metals and alloys are crystalline bodies with their atoms arranged in regular
order, which is periodically repeated in three directions
They distinguish them from amorphous bodies whose atoms are in random order
Metals obtained by conventional methods are polycrystalline bodies, consisting of
great number of fine crystals differently oriented with respect to one another
All typical properties of metals can be explained by the fact that they contain
highly mobile electrons.
 PURE METALS & ALLOYS

In their ordinary structural state pure metals are of low strength and do not
possess required physicochemical and structural properties for definite
purpose, in most cases. Consequently they are seldom used in engineering
applications.
Overwhelming majority of metals are thus used as alloys.
Example :
Steel, Cast iron, Copper alloys, Aluminium alloys etc
SINGLE CRYSTAL

Unit Cell
 STRUCTURE OF METALS

Phases
Different distinct states of aggregation of matter
Gases : Always single phase
Liquids : Pure liquid or solution single phase, immiscible
liquids eg. Oil & water two phases
Solids : Different crystal structures ( even having the same
composition ) form different phases. Can be single or multi-
phase.
Grains
During solidification from the liquid phase or re-
crystallisation from one solid phase to another, crystals
nucleate at different points within the parent phase and grow
until they impinge on one another and form individual grains.
Structure
Structure of a metal / alloy implies the metallurgical phases
present, their dispersion, shape, orientation and grain size.
All of these go to determine its physical and mechanical
properties
POLYCRYSTAL

Grain
boundary
 CRYSTAL BOUNDARY OR GRAIN BOUNDARY

In these regions there exists a film of metals, some three atoms thick, in which
atoms do not conform to any pattern
This crystal boundary is of amorphous nature
Metallic bond acts within and across the crystal boundary and therefore not
necessarily an area of weakness
Impurity atoms has got tendency to segregate at grain boundary or crystal
boundary.
Depending on the nature of impurity atom they may strengthen or weaken the
boundary
GRAIN BOUNDARY
 DEFECTS IN METALS - DISLOCATIONS

Any real crystal always has defects in its structure and deviates from perfect
periodicity
These defects are called Lattice defects / Lattice imperfections / Dislocations
Metals and alloys get deformed when dislocations are forced to move by the
application of force
Any solute atom, phase or inter-metallic that resists the flow of dislocations are the
strengthening agents in any alloy system
STRUCTURE OF STEELS
 STRUCTURE OF METALS

The basic structure of a metal or alloy is a crystal consisting of the metal atoms located in
a specific 3-dimensional arrangement or lattice
For iron you have 2 crystal structures - polymorphism

Alpha iron upto 912 deg C

Gamma iron 912 1394 deg C
Delta iron 1394 1539 deg C
 IRON - CARBON PHASE DIAGRAM

Alloy addition alters

phase diagram

Ferrite stabiliser - Cr,

Mo, Si, W, V etc.
fcc Austenite stabiliser
austenite
- Ni, Mn, C, N, Cu

With suitable alloy addition

steels can be made either
austenitic or ferritic at
all temperatures
bcc
ferrite Austenite = Ferrite DV ~ 4%
 METALLURGICAL PHASES IN STEEL )

Steel is basically an alloy of iron and carbon

( graphite )
Ferrite solid solution of carbon in alpha iron
Austenite solid solution of carbon in gamma
iron
Delta ferrite solid solution of carbon in delta iron
Cementite Fe3C An inter-metallic compound
having Wt percent C 6.67%
Pearlite Lamellar structure consisting of
alternate bands of Ferrite and Cementite
Graphite Crystalline form of carbon having a
hexagonal crystal structure. Only forms on very
slow cooling in cast irons
Temperature Time Transformation T-T-T Diagrams
Effect of composition & cooling rate on microstructure

A large variety of microstructures can be

Austenite: fcc
developed in ferritic steel by changing composition
Ferrite: bcc & cooling rate
A variety of microstructures & hence properties can be obtained in steel by controlled
cooling
EFFECT OF COOLING RATE ON PEARLITE

Pearlitic structure is lamellar with alternate

bands of ferrite + pearlite

Faster cooling
V. Fine pearlite 35 40 Rc

Fast cooling
Fine pearlite 20 25 Rc
( air cooled )

Slow cooling
Coarse pearlite 5 10 Rc
( furnace cooled )

Cooling rate
 MILD STEEL FOR STRUCTURAL PURPOSES

Carbon 0.15 0.25 % ( covered by IS: 2062 )

Used in as-rolled and air-cooled condition in the form of plates, channels & other
structural sections
Structure : Ferrite + 25% fine pearlite
Properties : Y.S. 300 to 350 Mpa
UTS - 400 to 450 Mpa
El - 26 30

Low carbon steels 0.1% C

Structure : Mainly ferrite + small amount pearlite
Properties : YS - 200300 mpa, UTS - 300370 mpa elongation 2840%
Very good ductility, used as cold rolled sheets in automobile and white goods industry
 DEMANDS ON MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION

Higher strength
Improved toughness down to cryogenic temperatures
Resistance to corrosion by a wide variety of chemicals and corrosive media.
High temperature oxidation resistance
Resistance to creep at high temperatures
Higher strength : weight ratio
Wear and erosion resistant
Should be weldable
 Heat-Treatment

Various heat treatments

Annealing
Normalising
Spherodising
Hardening
Age Hardening
CCT DIAGRAMS
CRITICAL COOLING RATES
 FULL ANNEALING

Full annealing is the process of slowly raising the temperature about 50 C (90 F)
above the Austenitic temperature line A3 or line ACM in the case of Hypoeutectoid
steels (steels with < 0.77% Carbon) and 50 C (90 F) into the Austenite-
Cementite region in the case of Hypereutectoid steels (steels with > 0.77%
Carbon).

It is held at this temperature for sufficient time for all the material to transform into
Austenite or Austenite-Cementite as the case may be. It is then slowly cooled at
the rate of about 20 C/hr (36 F/hr) in a furnace to about 50 C (90 F) into the
Ferrite-Cementite range. At this point, it can be cooled in room temperature air
with natural convection.

The grain structure has coarse Pearlite with ferrite or Cementite (depending on
whether hypo or hyper eutectoid). The steel becomes soft and ductile.
 NORMALISING

Normalizing is the process of raising the temperature to over 60 C (108 F),

above line A3 or line ACM fully into the Austenite range. It is held at this
temperature to fully convert the structure into Austenite, and then removed form
the furnace and cooled at room temperature under natural convection. This
results in a grain structure of fine Pearlite with excess of Ferrite or Cementite. The
resulting material is soft; the degree of softness depends on the actual ambient
conditions of cooling. This process is considerably cheaper than full annealing
since there is not the added cost of controlled furnace cooling.
 HARDENING OF IRON

Martensite is very hard phase when containing some carbon.

It can be made by fast cooling of carbon containing iron from austenitic condition.
To impart some toughness, it needs to be softened by tempering treatment
MECHANISMS FOR IMPROVING STRENGTH AND TOUGHNESS

Strength / hardness improved by :

Solid solution hardening
Dispersion of second phase
Phase transformation
Precipitation hardening carbides / intermetallic compounds
Ageing ( time dependent precipitation hardening )
Work hardening
High strength / weight ratio:
Titanium As strong as steel half the weight
Aluminium 1/ 3 the weight half the strength.
Age hardening Aircraft alloys nearly as strong as steel
Toughness improved by :
Grain refinement / fine grain size
Low impurity level
Austenite phase promoted by Nickel, Manganese etc.
 MARTENSITE

Martensite
Martensite :
Very hard and brittle phase.
Formed on rapid cooling below Ms
temperature
Tempered Martensite :
Has a good combination of strength and
toughness and is a useful structure and is
developed by re-heating martensite
Hardness depends on carbon content of steel

Carbon % 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.8

Hardness (Rc) 38 44 50 57 60 63 65
 BAINITE

Bainite + accicular ferrite

Formed in alloyed steels when
austenite is cooled rapidly passed the
nose of the C-curve .
Extremely fine mixture of ferrite +
carbide but not lamellar like pearlite
Formed between 500 220 C Upper
Bainite or lower Bainite depending on
temp.
Has higher hardness and toughness than
pearlite
 MARTENSITE FORMATION

For carbon steels very fast cooling rates required to form Martensite
3 deg C / sec Fine pearlite
35 deg C / sec - Very fine pearlite + martensite
140 deg C / sec martensite
 EFFECT OF ALLOYING ADDITIONS

Alloying elements such as Ni, Cr, Mn, Si, Mo & V shift the nose of the C-C-
T curve to the right. Exception Cobalt which shifts it to left
This is because they slow down growth of pearlite. Eg - 0.5% Mo slows growth
rate X 100
Martensite can thus be formed at much slower cooling rates
In a Ni-Cr-Mo low alloy steel cooling rate of

8 deg C / sec Full martensite

0.3 deg / sec Bainite + martensite
0.02 deg / sec Pearlite

Note :
Alloy elements do not affect the hardness of the Martensite they only affect the
ease with which Martensite forms
 HIGH STRENGTH LOW ALLOY STRUCTURAL STEELS

Carbon in same range as mild steels 0.15 0.25%

Small amounts of alloying elements Mo, Cr, Cu, Ni etc added eg. weathering
steels to IS: 11587
Structure accicular ferrite and bainite or ferrite and tempered martensite
Sronger and tougher than pearlitic steels with higher strength
Hardenability is increased which affects weldability

YS 400-700 MPa
UTS 500-800 MPa
Elongation 18-25%
 Grain size and its effects

Grain size significantly influences the properties of a steel. Finer the grain size
higher the strength and toughness
The original or recrystallized austenite grain size determines the ferrite and
pearlite grain size.
ASTM grain size No = 2n-1 grains / sq inch viewed at 100 X mag

Critical temperatures for Carbon steels

A1 Eutectoid temperature during

cooling ( Ar 1 ) heating ( Ac 1 ) Acm

A3 Temp of the F+A to A phase A3
boundary and is a function of
carbon content
Acm Temp of the A+C to A phase

boundary and again a function A1

of carbon content
 Micro alloyed HSLA steels

Fine dispersion of alloy carbides results in strengthening by precipitation

hardening
Small amounts of carbide forming elements eg. Nb, V, Ti etc added Total
amount 0.20% max as such called Micro-alloyed steels
Controlled rolling at low finish roll temperatures results in very fine grain
size ASTM 12 14. Also improves strength.
Range of medium and high tensile steel developed to give improved strength
and toughness without impairing weldability. Covered by IS:8500 - 1991
Gives comparitively lower elongation but better toughness than low alloy
HSLA steels

Properties : UTS 600 650 MPa

YS 400 500 MPa
Elongation 20 22 %
 Properties of typical Micro-alloyed steels
Grade / Trade %C % Mn % Si % MA YS UTS
name MPa MPa

ASTM A633 0.20 1.50 0.50 0.05 Nb 350 min 600 min
Gr C

SAILMA 410 0.25 1.50 0.50 Nb+V+Ti 410 min 540 - 660
=0.20

SAILMA 450 0.25 1.50 0.50 Nb+V+Ti 450 min 570 - 720
=0.20

SAILMA 450HI 0.20 1.50 0.50 Nb+V+Ti 450 min 570 720
=0.20 CVN = 19.6J
Min at 20C

TISTEN 60 0.20 1.80 0.50 0.20 440 min 590 min

 Welded & higher strength structures

Introduction of welded structures implied

High heat input of the welding arc / heat source and influence of arc
atmosphere
Solidification of the molten filler metal and fused portion of base metal
into a separate weld zone
Parent metal on both sides of the weld affected by the weld thermal
cycle Heat affected zone ( HAZ )
Metallurgical effects on both reheating and cooling

Introduction of higher strength steels to reduce weight and cost of structure

Alloying elements added to develop strength
Lead to more complex metallurgical changes
Structure of the Welded Joint
and Weldability of Steels
 Formation of regions having different
microstructures during welding

Weld is a composite having different properties

in different zones
 The Weld and Heat Affected Zones

Weld zone columnar solidification structure

Fusion Zone boundary of weld and HAZ

HAZ 1 Zone heated below 600 C, base

metal unaffected
HAZ 2 Sub-critical zone 650-727 C,
tempering and some spherodisation
HAZ 3 Inter-critical zone A1 to A3, partial
transformation to Austenite recrystalised
fine grain size.
HAZ 4 Super-critical zone above A3 full
transformation to austenite. On cooling F
+ P or hard B or M may form depending
on rate and composition
Macrograph of weld and HAZ
HAZ 5 Super critical zone above 1050, grain
growth of recrystalised austenite,
reduced strength & impact
 Weldability
Macrograph of a weld joint & HAZ
Weldability is defined as the capacity
of a metal to be welded under the
fabrication conditions imposed, into a
suitable designed structure, and to
perform satisfactorily in the intended
service

Weldability is the ease with which a

metal can be welded to give the
required service

Weldability is the number of

problems you face to weld a material
 Weldability problems

Cracking In the weld solidification cracks

-- micro-fissuring
- In the HAZ Hydrogen cracking
- Liquation cracks
Porosity
Oxidation of reactive metals
Reduced joint strength In the weld
-- In the HAZ
Reduced corrosion resistance
Problems in welding structural
steels

Hydrogen induced cold cracking

( HICC )
HAZ cracking
Delayed cracking

Hot cracking
Solidification cracking
Centerline cracking
Due to high S & P levels which
produce low melting films at
grain boundaries
Reduced by higher Mn content
Lamellar Tearing

Is generally associated with welding of

fairly large highly restrained structures
Occurs predominantly in plate material
Due to presence of non metallic
inclusions
Difficult to detect by NDT techniques.
Maybe assessed by STRA of tensile test in
short transverse direction
Cracks can occur in parent plate / HAZ and
generally run parallel to the plate surface
 Mechanism of HAZ cracking

3 factors causing Hydrogen induced cold cracking

A brittle martensitic micro-structure produced by rapid cooling in HAZ
area heated above A1 line
Presence of Hydrogen from the welding process
Presence of contractional and residual stresses

Mechanism
Hydrogen absorbed by the weld pool diffuses to the fusion zone and HAZ
as the weld solidifies and cools
Forms pockets of molecular hydrogen which exerts additional stress on
the susceptible microstructure
In combination with existing stresses causes cracking generally in HAZ
but can also take place in multi-pass welds
 Factors influencing HICC

Presence of Hydrogen Process

Presence of stress Weld design
Formation of hard microstructure
Chemical composition ( intrinsic to material )
Cooling rate - Combined thickness of joint
- Heat input of process
- Degree of preheat if any and inter-pass temp

Chemical composition expressed in terms of carbon equivalent

C.E. is the measure of the susceptibility of the material to form a
hard microstructure ( martensite )
Thus Carbon Equivalent has become synonymous with Weldability
of a steel

C.E. = %C + % Mn / 6 + % (Cr + Mo + V ) / 5 + % (NI + Cu) / 15

 HOT CRACKING

Hot cracking takes in a solidifying metal when low melting point constituents forms
during solidification and stresses are relatively high.
In general reducing the solidification range inhibits the tendency for hot cracking.

HOT CRACKING IN FERRITIC STEEL

In case of ferritic steels, sulphur, phosphorous, boron and niobium are the most
harmful elements in terms of their effect on the solidification range.
Increased sulphur content leads to the formation of increased volume of low
melting point grain boundary film.
 HOT CRACKING IN STAINLESS STEEL

In stainless steels, microfissuring and hot cracking has been a serious problem.
It is now known that weld metal that solidifies as ferrite is inherently much less
susceptible to cracking than which solidified as austenite.
Sulphur and phosphorous should be generally below 0.01% and 0.025%
respectively in the weld metal.
Niobium promotes cracking while molybdenum makes the deposit more crack
resistant.
It has been found necessary to have about 4-8% of delta ferrite in the weld metal
of the austenitic stainless steels.
Schaeffer diagram or Delong diagram are widely used to estimate the percentage
of ferrite in the weld metal on the basis of the composition of stainless steels.
Schaeffler Diagram
Delong Diagram
 Combined thickness of joints

Butt welds & corner welds of equal

thickness - T1 + T2

Butt welds & corner welds of unequal

thickness
Av of T1 over 75 mm + T2

Fillet welds T1 + T2 + T3

Directly opposed simultaneous fillet

welds T1 + T2 + T3 / 2

Two rods - D1 + D2 / 2
 Heat input during welding

Is calculated from the Arc energy divided by the welding speed

Arc voltage X Welding current

----------------------------------------------- kJ / mm
Welding speed ( mm / sec ) X 1000

For other welding process divide by following factors

SAW ( single wire ) - 0.8
GTAW - 1.2
GMAW - 1.0
 Hydrogen levels for different processes and
consumables
Scale A : Above 15 ml / 100 gm diffusible hydrogen content in weld Rutile
electrodes, LH electrodes which have been exposed to moisture
Scale B : 10 15 ml / 100 gm diffusible hydrogen content - LH electrodes redried at
250 C
Scale C : 5 10 ml / 100 gm diffusible hydrogen content Gas Metal arc welding
( MIG ) process, LH electrodes redried at 350 C
Scale D : below 5 ml / 100 gm diffusible hydrogen content Gas Tungsten Arc
welding ( TIG ) process, LH electrodes redried at 450 C
 Practical requirements of Welding Engineer

Given a steel of known composition or C.E.

Upto what combined thickness can be welded with normal rutile electrodes,
without danger of HAZ cracking
Upto what thickness can be welded using Low Hydrogen electrodes
Upto what thickness can be welded using Low Hydrogen electrodes properly
redried as per manufacturers recommendations
Above what thickness pre-heat is required and degree of pre-heat.
Is it necessary to impose any restrictions on heat input by the welding process and
parameters used
IS 9595 : 1996 recommendations for welding of carbon
and carbon manganese steels

Annexure F gives detailed guidance on pre-heat requirements and inter-

pass temperatures for avoiding hydrogen induced cold cracking
considering the following factors
- Carbon equivalent of steel
- Combined thickness to be welded
- Heat input of process in kJ / mm
- Hydrogen level of process in Scales A to D
Simplified table for Fillet welds
Detailed graphs for other conditions

Covers steels under IS : 2062 - 1992 and IS 8500 1991 of C.E. upto 0.53
THANK YOU