Living With Tectonic

Harzards- Risk or
Opportunity
 Key Question 1)
Why are some areas more prone to Tectonic
Hazards?
 Outline the main types of Natural
Hazards
Natural Hazards:
- Events that occur naturally that threaten
human lives and cause damage to property &
the environment
- The result from the interaction of physical
processes and varied ways man uses the
environment
Climate
Tectonic
Related

Volcanic
Earthquakes Tsunamis Droughts Floods Tsunamis
Eruptions
Describe the Internal Structure of the
Earth
 Describe the Internal Structure of
the Earth
Crust
Outermost layer of the Earth
Consists of the Continental Crust &
Oceanic Crust
Continental Crust Oceanic Crust

Beneath the Continents Beneath the oceans

Thicker (10-70km~) Thinner (<7km~)
Less Dense Denser
 Describe the Internal Structure of
the Earth
Mantle
Thickness of estimate 2900km~ and
temperature ranges from 800oC -
3000oC
80% of Earths total Volume
Outer part of the mantle and
overlying crust makes up the
Lithosphere
The lower part of the mantle is
known as the softer asthenosphere
Describe the Internal Structure
of the Earth
Core
Rich in Iron and Nickel
Temperature ranges between 3000oC-
5000oC
In the outer core, a liquid layer of
thickness of 2100km~
Within the Inner core, a solid layer of
1220km~ due to extreme pressure
exerted by surrounding layers
 Explain the movement of Tectonic
Plates
Tectonic Plates are made up of the
Rigid Lithosphere
Continental Oceanic
Thickness of 35-70km~ Thickness of 5-8km~

Less Dense Denser

Consists of geologically old,
light, coarse-grained granite
formed through the slow cooling
of magma
Found beneath land masses and
under shallow seas near
continents
Consists of geologically young,
compact, heavy and fine-
grained basalt formed through
the rapid cooling of magma
Found beneath Deep Oceans
 Explain the movement of Tectonic
Plates
Move continuously due to the pull of
subducting plates and convection
currents circulating within the mantle
When the molten magma is heated, it
expands and becomes less dense than
the cooler magma above
As a result, the warmer magma rises,
while the cooling magma sinks. Hence,
convections currents within the mantle
are formed.
 Explain the movement of Tectonic
Plates
When the warmer magma reaches the crust
above it spreads out across the surface and
pushes the plate away from each other
When the magma cools, the magma sinks and
pulls the plates towards each other
Subduction occurs when a denser oceanic
crusts slides underneath a less dense
continental plate
The pull of subducting plates causes the rest of
the plate to sink, resulting in the downward
direction of the convection currents
Global Distribution of Tectonic
Plates
Global Distribution of Tectonic
Plates
 Types of Plate Boundaries
Divergent
Movement: Spreading/ Moving away from
Effect: Plates moving away from each other. New
crust is formed
Landforms: Ridge/ Rift Valleys/ Block Mountains/
volcanoes
E.g.
Oceanic-Oceanic Plate Divergence (Mid-Atlantic
Ridge)
Continental-Continental Plate Divergence (Great
East African Rift Valley
 Types of Plate Boundaries
Convergent
Movement: Subduction
Effect: Plates moving towards each other/ Existing
crust is removed
Landforms: Trench Fold Mountains/ Volcanoes
Examples:
Oceanic-Oceanic Plate Convergence (Mariana Trench)
Continental-Continental Plate Convergence (The
Himalayas)
Oceanic-Continental Plate Convergence (The Andes)
 Types of Plate Boundaries
Transform
Movement: Sliding Past Each other
Effect: No major effect on the crust
Examples: North Anatolian Fault
between the Northam American Plate
and the Pacific Plate
 Why are there different plate
movements?
The convection currents occur
throughout the mantle, so the pulling
of plates from one side will push
against the other side as well
 Subduction Zone
Zone where a denser plate goes
under a less dense plate
 Continental-Continental Plate
Divergence
Two continental plates are pulled apart from each other,
because of the rising and diverging mantle convection
currents
When they diverge, these plates are stretched. This
causes fractures at the plates boundaries
As a result the land in between the faults sinks, forming a
rift valley resulting from tension or compression
Magma from the melting mantle directly below the rift
system results in the formation of active volcanoes

E.g. The formation of the East African Rift valley between

the African plate(Nubian) and the African Plate (Somalia)
 Formation of Rift Valley & Block
Mountains
The continental crust is stretched and moves
upwards by the rising convections currents in
the mantle
The plates diverge and stretch further when the
convection currents spread out, causing the
rock layers top be pulled apart in opposite
directions
Faulting occurs. As the plates continue to move
apart, the resulting tensional forces from these
movements results in fractures in parts of the
crust
Formation of Rift Valley and Block
Mountains
 Formation of Rift Valley & Block
Mountains
Along these faults, sections of the
crust can extend. When these sections
extend along fault lines, the tensional
forces from these movements results
in fractures in parts of the crust
After the land masses surrounding the
block of land subsides, results in the
formation of a block mountain
between parallel faults
 Oceanic-Oceanic Plate
Divergence
Two oceanic plates diverge from each other and cause
fractures at the plate boundary
Magma from the mantle rises through the fractures to fill
the gap between the plates and forms a new sea floor
Sea floor spreading occurs. The lava cools and solidifies
after flowing out onto the seafloor, forming the mid-
oceanic ridge over time at the divergence zone
The plate moves away gradually from the ridge where it
was formed as spreading continues
E.g. Mid-Atlantic Ridge is formed when the North-
American Plate moves westward and the Eurasian Plate
moves eastward
Oceanic-oceanic Plate Convergence
Two oceanic plates converge, in which the denser one
subducts under the less dense one
At the subduction zone, the area in which one plates
slides beneath the other, a deep oceanic trench is formed
When the denser plate subducts, it causes the mantle to
melt to form magma. Magma rises through the crusts to
form undersea volcanoes
Accumulation of erupted lava and volcanic debris on
ocean floor until the undersea volcanoes rises above sea
level to form a chain of island volcanoes (Island Arcs)
E.g. Between the Philippine Plate and the Pacific Plate
Formation of the deep Mariana Trench as the Philippine
Plate subducts under the Pacific Plate
Formation of the island arcs, the chain of Mariana Islands
 Continental-Continental Plate Convergence

When two continental plates collide

and push against each other,
subduction is resisted and does not
occur
As a result, the layers of rocks on the
upper part of the crust is compressed
and becomes buckled, either being
folded upwards or sideways
Formation of Fold Mountains
When the two continental plates collide and
push against each other without subduction, this
causes the plates to break and slide along the
fractures in the crust
Pressure from resultant compressional force
causes the layers of the rock to buckle and fold
upwards to form fold mountains
E.g. Between the Eurasian Plate and Indian Plate
Compression of layers of rock causes folding to
occur to form The Himalayas and the Tibetan
Plateau
 Oceanic-Continental Plate
Convergence
When oceanic and continental plate converge, the
denser oceanic plate subducts under the less dense
continental plate
At subduction zone, a deep oceanic trench forms
Subducted plate puts pressure on the mantle of the
overlying continental plate, causing the mantle to
melt, forming magma
On overlying continental plate, layers of rock buckle
and fold forming fold mountains
Active volcanoes form when magma rises through the
the mantle to the surface.
Earthquakes may occur.
 Transform Plate boundary
When plates slide past each other, a transform fault
results.
Tension and pressure builds up due to friction between
rocks of two plates when they slide past each other.
The eventual release of stress results in a series of
tremors or violent earthquakes
Ridges become misaligned at transform plate boundary
E.g. San Andreas fault between the North American
Plate and Pacific Plate
1906 Earthquake in San Francisco occurred when the
plates slid past each other along the fault
 Volcanoes
When magma from the magma chamber reaches the surface
through the vent, it is ejected onto the Earths surface with great
pressure as Lava
Lava builds up around the tent and solidifies to form a small
volcanic cone with a bowl-shaped opening (Crater)
Series of a volcanic eruption from the same event will result in
successful layers of lava to build up
During the formation of a volcano, magma may seek a new exit to
the surface when the existing vent is blocked, which forms a
secondary cone
A caldera is formed when a violent volcanic blow off the summit of
a volcano, which causes the sides of the crater to collapse inwards
due to the loss structural support, and forms a large
depression( An enlarged crater with a diameter of more than 1km)
 Volcanoes
Crater
Caldera
Vent
Magma Chamber
 Types of Lava
Has a lower viscosity, so it flows more easily
Low- through the vent before reaching the surface.
Silica/Basic Outer layer of cooling alva forms thin crust
Lava Gases escape easily through the vent, so
volcanic eruptions are less explosive

Has a Higher Viscosity, so it traps gases more easily

High-Silica/ and causes pressure to build up
Acid When magma reaches the surface, the gases expand
Lava to release an outward explosion
Volcanic materials from the eruption include lava, ash,
rock fragments and gases
 Stratovolcano
Formed through the successive eruption of high-silica lava and
pyro lasts (Mixture of ash, rock fragments, and volcanic
bombs released during a volcanic eruption
Lava from each eruption covers the layer of pyroclasts and
prevents it from erosion
Volcano becomes high with a slightly concave shape, steeper
at the top of gentler at the base
A secondary cone may be formed in the volcano when the
magma is released at a new exit to reach the surface
High silica lava tends to trap gases, it results in pressure to
build up beneath the surface, resulting in very explosive
explosions
Volcanic eruptions may result in pyroclastic flow and lahars
E.g. Eruption of Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines in 1991
 Shield Volcano
Gentle sloping sides with a broad summit
Formed by the Low-silica/ Basic lava,
which flows easily to a large area before
solidying
Successive eruptions allow the lava to
accumulate and expand the base of the
volcano
Volcanic Eruptions are not explosive
because the low-silica lava allows gases to
escape easily
 Level of activity of Volcanoes
Type Level of Activity Example

Active Volcano Volcano that erupts Mount St

and regularly and is Helens(USA)
likely to erupt again
in the future
Dormant Volcano A volcano that has Mount Fuji(Japan)
not erupted for many
years but may erupt
one day
Extinct Volcano A volcano that has Mount Kilmanjaro
not erupted for a long
period of time(More
than 10 000 years
and is unlikely to
erupt again
 Distribution of Volcanoes
Volcanoes are generally found along
the plate boundaries where the
movement of crustal plates causes
volcanic activities
Most active volcanoes are located
along the Pacific Ocean Pacific Ring
of Fire
 Risk Factors of Living Near Volcanic
Areas
Destruction by Volcanic Materials
Landslides
Effects on the Weather
Pollution
 Destruction of Volcanic Materials

When a volcano erupts, lava and pyroclasts are

released that consists of ash, rock fragments and
volcanic bombs
These volcanic materials can cause widespread
damage of property
Lava of extremely high temperatures between 500 oC-
1400oC burns down the areas it flows through
e.g. Low-silica lava flows easily and quickly over long
distances and destroys larger areas
Inhaling a large amount of ash and gases can cause a
person to suffocate and the suffocation can lead to
death
 Case Study
In 2002, the eruption of Nyiragonga in the
Democratic Republic of Congo emitted large
volumes of lava that destroyed 15% of the city
of Goma and split the city into different
sections.
The eruption has destroyed approximately
14000 homes and displaced 75% of the
population
The ongoing eruption of Kilauea in Hawaii has
damaged many houses and infrastructure since
1983
 Landslides
The structure collapse of a volcanic
cone during a volcanic eruption can
trigger landslides
Large scale landslides can block the
flow of river and result in flooding,
road blockage and bury villages and
farmlands
 Case Study
In 1995, a pyroclastic flow from the
eruption of Nevado del Ruiz in the
Andes mountains of South America
triggered lahards, which buried the
town of Armero and killed more than
20000 people
 Effects on the weather
A volcanic eruption can release ash particles which can
disrupt human activities over large distances from the
volcano
This is because the fine ash particles of less than
0.001mm can spread easily over thousands of
kilometres by winds to affect areas further away from
the eruption source
When thick plumes of ash settle on the ground, they can
block sunlight, suffocate crops and trigger severe
respiratory problems in humans and animals
Volcanic eruptions can release various gases such as
carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, hydrogen and carbon
monoxide, gases which are harmful to inhale
 Case Study
In 2010, the eruption of Eyjafjallajokull in Iceland emitted
large amounts of volcanic ash clouds containing tiny
particles of abrasive glass, sand and rocks, which can
damage aircraft engines and structures
This caused the extensive closure of air space in many
European countries. The airline industry suffered
economic losses of about US1.8 Billion due to worldwide
conncting flight cancellation

In 1986, the eruption of lake Nyos in Cameroon in Africa

released large amounts of carbon dioxide. The gas
suffocated more than 1700 villagers and 3500 livestock
in the nearby villages
 Benefits of living near Volcanic
Areas
Fertile soil
Precious stones and minerals
Tourism
Geothermal energy
 Fertile Soil
When lava and ash from volcanic
eruptions break down, they form fertile
volcanic soils, which supports agriculture
Volcanic rocks contain minerals. However,
these minerals in the newly formed rocks
are not available to plants. After they are
weathered and broken down for a very
long period of time, the minerals will the
be made available to plants
 Case Study
Many people have been living near
the volcanic areas in Java and Bali
because the fertile volcanic soils
support the cultivation of crops such
as tea, coffee and rice
The soils remain fertile than in most
non-volcanic areas after many
rounds of cultivation
 Presence of Stones & Minerals

Magma rising from deep inside th earth

contains a range of precious stones and
minerals, which can be extracted after the
upper layers of volcanic rocks have been
eroded millions of years ago
For example, Diamonds are from the heated
and pressurised carbon which are cooled in
magma pipes beneath the earths surfaces.
Refined diamonds are a source of industrials
tools, in scientific research and jewellery
 Case Study
The old Volcanic rocks in Kimberley in
South Africa are one of the worlds
richest sources of diamonds
 Tourism
Volcanic areas can attract millions of
tourists as there are a variety of
activities that can be conducted in
these areas, like camping, hiking,
and enjoying scenery
Volcanic areas may be rich in history
that can encourage people to come
and learn more of these areas
 Case study
In Uganda, the volcanic region around Mount
Elgon is promoted as a tourist destination for
its landscape, huge waterfalls, wildlife, and
recreational activities.
In 79 CE, huge plumes of volcanic ash from
the eruptions of mount Vesuvius buried the
Roman city of Pompeii. As the ash buried the
city in its entirety, it helped preserve entire
buuldings paintings and artefacts, The tourist
attraction recieves about 3 million visitors per
year
 Geothermal Energy
Geothermal energy is energy from
the heat in the Earths crust
When groundwater is heated up by
hot rocks beneath the surface it
erupts as steam, which is then used
to turn turbines to produce electricity
 Case Study
In Iceland, almost 2/3 of the
electricity supply is produced from
geothermal energy due to the
presence of the large number of
volcanoes
 Earthquakes
Definition: It is a vibration in the Earths crust
caused by the sudden release of stored
energy in the rocks found along fault lines,
caused by plate movement along plate
boundaries
The plate movement causes a slow build-up of
stress on the rock layer found on either side of
the fault. Once the rocks cannot withstand the
increasing pressure, they slip many metres
suddenly and cause an earthquake
 Characteristics of an
Earthquake
An earthquake releases energy in the form of
seismic waves
Seismic waves propagate from the focus (A
point of sudden energy release) towards the
epicentre (The point on the earths surface directly
above the focus)
When the energy released from an earthquake
moves along the rock surface, it causes the ground
to shake violently.
The resulting aftershocks that occur along the fault
line after an earthquake event due to stress from
the ground within the crust
 Types of Earthquakes
Earthquakes Location of Focus Impact on the Land
Deep-Focus Between 70- 700km Seismic waves require
below the Earths a long time to reach
surface the Earths surface,
so most of the energy
dissipates when they
reach they earths
surface and cause a
smaller impact on the
land
Shallow-Focus Upper 70km of the Seismic waves reach
Earths crust the Earths surface at
a shorter time, so
these waves have
more energy and
cause a greater
impact on the land
 Factors affecting the Impact of
Earthquakes
Magnitude of Earthquakes
Population Density
Level of Preparedness
Distance from the epicentre
Time of occurrence
Type of Soil
 Magnitude of Earthquakes
Measured by the Ritcher Scale
The greater the magnitude on the Ritcher
scale, the greater the impact of the
earthquake
Impact of an earthquake is at a logarithmic
scale, it is 10 times greater for each
increasing magnitude
However, earthquakes of greater
magnitude may not always result in
extensive damage and destruction.
Magnitude Impact on the land
Below 2.0 Does not feel the Earthquake
2.1-3.0 Only a few people feel the
earthquake near the epicentre
3.1-4.0 Objects appear to be shaking
4.1-5.0 Most feel the earthquake, indoor
object start shaking
5.1-6.0 Buildings with weak foundations
collapse
People may have difficulty
walking
6.1-7.0 Buildings collapse
Cracks appear on the roads or in
the ground
7.1-8.0 Severe damage in most areas
8.1-9.0 Widespread damage in large
areas
Above 9.0 Widespread damage in thousands
of kilometres of land
 Population Density
Population density refers to the
number of people living in a specific
area
There are more people in a highly
populated area than in a sparsely
populated area
A higher population density increases
the chances of casualties
Therefore, an earthquake in a city is
likely to cause more casualties than
 Level of Preparedness
The amount of preparation taken by
the authorities and citizens to reduce
the impact of an earthquake
The preparations may include
evacuation plans, trained rescue
workers and other action plans
When people are well-prepared, they
are able to cope with the aftermath of
the earthquake and reduce its impact
 Distance from Epicentre
When an area is close to the
epicentre of an earthquake, it is likely
to suffer more extensive damage
than places further away from it
 Time of occurrence
The time of occurrence of an
earthquake determines peoples
activities at that time and affects the
chances of survival in the earthquake
When an earthquake occurs during
the time where most people are
sleeping, there is a higher chances of
many people being trapped and killed
by collapse houses
 Type of Soil
The seismic waves released from an
earthquake can be amplified in places with
loose and unconsolidated sediments, so these
places can experience greater damage caused
by the earthquake
Buildings built on saturated and
unconsolidated sediments can be damaged by
liquefaction.
Liquefaction is a when the ground becomes
unstable and the saturated soil flows like liquid
 Risks associated with living in
Earthquake Zones
Threat of Tsunamis
Disruption of essential services
Landslides
Destruction of
properties/infrastructure
Loss of lives
 Threat of Tsunamis
A tsunami is a series of sea waves caused by an earthquake, landslide or
volcanic eruption occurring under water
Seismic energy from an offshore earthquake forces up and out a large
amount of sea water
The height or amplitude of the initial tsunami waves are less than 1m, which
travel very fast and may pass undetected
When reaching the coast with shallower water, the waves slow down due to
friction. This causes the waves to increase in height as they are pushed
forward by the waves behind them
The distance between two wave peaks, the wavelength could be hundreds
of kilometers long
The tsunami waves hit the shore with a powerful force and this results in
extensive damage
Sometimes , the sea may recede from the coast initially as the sea water
first rushes to fill the void caused by the movement of the sea floor. After
that, the sea water is forced out again soon afterwards to generate tsunami
waves
 Case Study
In 2004, a 9.2 magnitude earthquake
in the Indian triggered a tsunami,
which destroyed the coastal
communities in 12 countries
The low-lying coastal areas of
Western Sumata in Indonesia,
including the city of Banda Aceh,
experience great extensive damage
as far inland as 10km by the tsunami
waves with heights ranging from 4m
 Disruption of essential
services
Earthquakes can disrupt basic services
such as the supply of water, electricity
and gas within the affected area.
The forces caused by earthquakes can
snap underground pipes and break
cables to trigger the outbreak of fires
Communication services like television
broadcasts and telephone connections
may be interrupted
 Case Study
E.g. In Kobe, Japan, the earthquake in
2004 damage water pipes and
transmission lines. This affected
about 1 million residents in the city
and they had no access to basic
services
 Landslides
The vibrations caused by earthquakes can
weaken the slopes of hills and mountains and
make them become unstable. The unstable
slopes may result in landslides.
Landslides are rapid movements of rock, soil
and vegetation debris down a slope. Their
length and width can range from several
metres to kilometres
Earthquakes can trigger mudflows when heavy
rainfall saturates the soil and cause the mixed
soil debris to flow down a slope
 Case Study
In 1970, an earthquake off the coast
of Peru triggerd a massive landslide.
The landslide travelled at a speed of
more than 160km/h and buried the
town of Ranrahirca within seconds.
More than 18 000 people were killed
and only 200 people survived the
disaster
 Destruction of
property/Infrastructure
The forces caused by earthquakes can
cause extensive damage to houses and
make people homeless
People may have to stay at temporary
shelters for a significant period of time
before their homes are rebuilt completely
Earthquakes can destroy infrastructure
such as roads and bridge, disrupting
transport routes as they become unsafe to
use
 Case Study
In Tohuku, Japan, the 2011
earthquake caused extensive
structural damage that left many
people homeless because their
homes became unsafe to live in
Th 1995 earthquake in kobe, Japan,
damaged the infrstructure and
caused many places in the city to
become inaccessible
 Responses to Earthquake
Preparedness Measures
Short-term Responses
Long-Term Responses
 Preparedness Measures
Land use regulations
Infrastructure
Emergency Drills
Earthquake and tsunami monitoring
and warning system
 Land Use Regulations
Land use regulations are a set of rules
implemented to restrict developments in
certain areas
They prohibit the construction of new
building low-lying coastal areas which are
prone to tsunami damage
Liquefaction can occur when vibrations of
earthquakes cause saturated soil in an area
to flow like liquid. This makes the area
unstable and unsafe for development
 Strengths
Land Use regulations are enforced in California, USA to
restrict new buildings being constructed along fault
lines or areas at rick of liquefaction to minimise the
damage caused by earthquakes. In the city of
memphis, USA, land use is regulated with the help of
maps which identify the areas at the risk of major
liquefaction
Land use regulations are enforced along the coasts of
Japan and North America where the Pacific Ring of Fire
is located. They ensure that there are necessary
protective barriers built, such as seawalls, to protect
buildings on low-lying coastal areas from the threat of
tsunamis
 Limitation
They may not be implemented easily in
existing built-up areas or privately owned
land. Some residents or private owners may
not be willing to relocate because they believe
that another hazard would not happen
The governments may buy land from private
owners or compensate those who need to
relocate in order to implement protective
measures in the risk areas. However, this
action can be extremely
 Infrastructure
Advanced engineering develops various
infrastructure, such as roads, dams and bridges that
can withstand the vibrations caused by earthquakes
Roads, dams and bridges are equipped with the
ability to resist the shaking of the ground, so they
do not collapse easily during earthquakes. They can
be repaired easily when they are damaged or
toppled by the strong vibrations of earthquakes
Trip swiches are installed in homes and office
buildings and factories are programmed to shut
down electrical points during earthquakes so that
they can prevent fires form breaking out.
 Infrastructure
An effective building design is able to reduce the chances of the
buildings collapsing and minimize the damage when an earthquake
occurs
Buildings are equipped with steel and reinforced concrete which do
not collapse easily compared to more brittle such as non-reinforced
concrete during earthquakes
Damping devices installed in buildings act as shock absorbers to
remove some of the seismic energy released by earthquakes. These
devices can act as counterweights by moving in opposite directions to
the motion of earthquakes so buildings will not sway too much and
collapse
When buildings are constructed with wide and heavy foundations with
placement of metal bars, they will not collapse easily
Base isolation bearings made of rubber are placed between buildings
and the ground can act as a buffer to prevent buildings from shaking
too much by absorbing the force of earthquakes
 Strength

The effectiveness of reinforced infrastructure can

only be tested during an actual earthquake event.
However, the benefits, for implementing reinforced
instrastructure have been observed in past
earthquake events in Japan, Chile and California.
The benefits include a lower death toll, faster
rescue and evacuation efforts as well as lower costs
in re-building the affected areas.
Effective building designs may increase both the
construction and maintenance to withstand the
potential earthquakes, but extremely costly to
implement reinforced instrastructure
 Emergency Drills

Emergency Drills are a form of preparedness

measure where people practise the necessary
actions to take during earthquake events
E.g. In Japan, emergency drills are carried out on 1
September since 1960 to commemorate Disaster
Prevention day by simulating a high-magnitude
earthquake. These drills preapre the people
mentally to reach when earthquakes occur.
Emergency vehicle learn how to move about to
seek alternative routes to reach the affected areas
when main roads are likely to be blocked by fallen
objects or damaged
 Strengths
Emergency drills raise peoples awareness
and reduce levels of panic and irrational
behaviour when a disaster strikes. People
learn from the drills on how to get
themselves to safe locations, follow
instructions given by trained personnel
and carry out first-aid.
People may volunteer to become
members of local response teams to help
people during earthquake events
 Limitations
Emergency drills may be designed based on
past serious earthquake events.
However, the 2011 earthquake in Thoku,
Japan, was on a scale never experienced before
in the country. So the drills and evacuation
plans became inadequate to cut down the
extensive damage caused by the earthquake
Emergency drills may not be effective when
there is not enough time for people to evacuate
because it is difficult to predict the onset of an
earthquake
 Earthquake & Monitoring
Systems
Monitoring and warning systems are technological
devices that enable scientists to predict potential
hazards and to warn people so that they can prepare
for evacuation
By studying the history or timeline of the occurrence
of earthquakes, scientists can monitor earthquakes or
develop the seismic risk maps
The installation of earthquake sensors in earthquake-
prone zones helps monitor the frequency of vibrations
and detect possible development of an earthquake
Collecting Earthquake motion data from many
observation stations allows for a trend to be observed
 Strengths

Monitoring earthquakes allow scientists to estimate

the frequency and magnitude at particular fault
lines so that the occurrence of an earthquake can
be predicted
Seismic risk maps developed from these studies
are useful to identify places that are likely to be at
risk
The installed earthquake sensors in the observation
stations can monitor ground motion and predict the
occurrence of an earthquake, which helps to
estimate damage to infrastructure quickly
 Limitation
The study of the history or timeline of the
occurrence o earthquakes can provide a general
indication only of the frequency and magnitude of
earthquakes. The seismic risk maps do not include
precise information about the time, location and
magnitude of future earthquakes
Sensors are expensive to obtain, install and use
Warnings do no provide sufficient time for people to
evacuate
Difficult to provide accurate warnings when multiple
earthquakes take place simultaneously at close
proximity
 Tsunami Monitoring and warning
systems
Tsunami monitoring stations are
found in many tsunami-prone
locations around the world, locations
which are generally near plate
boundaries
In Hawaii, USA, there is a network of
pressure sensors, seismographs and
deep ocean tsunami detectors put in
place to monito and forecast the
path of tsunamis
 Strengths & Limitations
Predict the occurrence of tsunamis and
are linked to warning systems so that
these systems can sound off warnings
when a tsunami is likely to take place
However, high waves may cause false
warnings of a tsunami
There is simply not enough time for
people to evacuate when an
approaching tsunami is detected
 Short-Term Responses
Search and rescue
Emergency, food and medical
supplies
 Search and Rescue
This involves locating and freeing trapped
people under collapsed buildings quickly usually
with the help of sniffer dogs or heat sensors
This is important as it results in the possibility of
saving survivors who are trapped without food
for a few days
However rescue workers have only a limted 72
hours or 3 days to locate the trapped survivors.
Many trapped victims are not likely to survive
without food and water after 3 days
 Emergency Supplies
Provide immediate medical help to the injured
survivors so that they have a better chance for
recovering
The survivors must obtain clean drinking water
supply before they become dehydrated and to
avoid the spread of diseases
The provision of immediate aid allows the survivors
to carry on with their lives easily after a disaster
When insufficient medical supplies, food and water
are provided to large numbers of affected people,
the situation may give rise to social unrest
 Long-Term Responses
Rebuilding of infrastructure
Provision of Healthcare
 Rebuilding of Infrastructure
Rebuild and improve infrastructure after an
earthquake so that the people in the affected
area can resume their normal lives quickly
The authorities can come up with stricter
building codes to ensure the safety level than
before
Reinforced buildings may be able to withstand
earthquakes but may not be proteted against
tsunamis, which requires additional protection
in the form of coastal protection structures
 Provision of Healthcare
It is necessary to provide health options
for the survivors such as long-term
counselling for those who suffered the loss
of family members, homes or jobs after
earthquakes as these incidents could
cause long lasting traumas
Improving health options such as restoring
the supplies of basic necessities to the
people after the earthquakes can be very
challenging