DIGESTIVE

SYSTEM
 Introduction
concerned with the function of nutrition which includes
ingestion, digestion, absorption and egestion
process of digestion involves the physical and chemical
breakdown of food to render it soluble and ready for
reabsorption
tongue and teeth help in mechanical breakdown of food
chemical digestion occurs with help of digestive juices
containing enzymes secreted by the digestive glands
secretion of enzymes is basically under the control of
hormones
passage of food along the digestive tract is aided by gut
motility controlled by nervous system
 Incomplete Type
when anus is absent, mouth serves for ingestion of food and
egestion of waste materials

Fasciola or Clonorchis
Parts:
mouth anterior end
oral sucker circular and muscular sucking disc
surrounding the mouth
pharynx short muscle
esophagus short tube from the pharynx

additional for Fasciola

side branches or diverticula of the intestines are very
prominent and seem to fill the body
 COMPLETE TYPE

mouth and anus are present

may be subdivided into the digestive

tract, the digestive glands, and the
accessory structures
 Coelom, Peritoneum, and
Mesenteries
Coelom
cavity containg the visceral organs
divided into:
a. small pericardial cavity contains the heart
b. larger pleuro-peritoneal cavity which contains the rest of the
visceral organs

Peritoneum
connective tissue membrane that lines the coelom
Types:
a. parietal peritoneum lines the body wall
b. visceral peritoneum covers most visceral organs
 Coelom, Peritoneum, and
Mesenteries

Mesenteries
two layers of the peritoneum that suspends viscera
from the dorsal body wall
name of organ they suspend

Omentum
double membrane continuous with the mesenteries
that connect the visceral organs with one another
also named after organ they connect
 Buccal Cavity
- large cavity exposed upon opening the mouth

Parts:
maxillary teeth in the upper jaw
sticky tongue located at the floor of the cavity which captures food
and passes it on the esophageal opening
glottis slit-like opening to the respiratory system and is found at
the region between the tongue and esophageal opening
vocal sacs where pair of slits lead to ; slits are located lateral to
the glottis and near angle of jaw
choanae or internal nares- pair of holes at the roof of the buccal
cavity
vomerine teeth- pair of v-shaped formations at the root of the mouth
Eustachian tube opening or recess near the angle
 4

1. Vomerine Teeth 3. Opening to the Eustachian Tube

2. Internal Nares 4. Maxillary Teeth
 Digestive Tube
1. esophagus
short tube connecting the oral cavity to the stomach
2. Stomach
bag shaped muscle
Parts of stomach:
a. cardiac end anterior portion continuous with the esophagus
b. pyloric end posterior portion continuous with the small
intestine
c. greater curvature outer curvature
d. lesser curvature inner curvature
e. rugae lines of the inner wall of the stomach
3. pyloric sphincter
constriction at the junction of the stomach and the small
intestine
 Digestive Tube
4. Small Intestine
- digestive tube that has become the long coiled structure from
the pylorus
- where most chemical digestion and absorption occurs
Has 2 regions:
a. duodenum bends anteriorly from the pylorus and runs
parallel to the stomach
b. ileum longer and posterior
5. Large Intestine
- where digestive tube enlarges
- further breakdown of undigested material by bacterial action and
the absorption of water occur here
 Digestive Tube
6. Cloaca
short narrow tube which opens to the outside through the
anus
- urine and gametes also pass through the cloaca and anus

Mesenteries found in digestive system

dorsal mesentery digestive tube is suspended from the
dorsal body
mesogaster mesenteries in the stomach at its cardiac end
mesentery proper or mesenterium suspends the ileum
mesorectum suspends rectum

7. Spleen
dark lymphoid organ lying within the fold of the mesorectum
Parts of the
Digestive System

3. Spleen
4. Liver
5. Stomach
6. Small Intestine
7. Large Intestine
RESPIRATORY
SYSTEM
 Types of Respiratory Organs
1. gills
- aquatic animals
2. lungs
evaginations (outpocketings )of the
digestive tube for terrestrial animals
3. tracheal system
invaginations of the integument
(inpocketings)
 TYPES OF
RESPIRATORY
SYSTEM
AQUATIC RESPIRATORY SYSTEMS
Gills of Fishes
-are delicate comb-like structures
a. Operculum covers the gills
b. Gill chamber part of the pharynx
c. Gill arches bony structures where gills are arched
d. Gill filaments arranged in parallel rows in rich in blood capillaries, this
also gives the dark red color of the gills in live or fresh specimen
e. Pharyngeal clefts- wide slits between the gill arches which serve for
the passage of water from the pharynx to the gill chamber

Breathing Movements of Fishes

water is taken in through the mouth and made to pass through the
gills then expelled out of the gill chamber through the gill aperture
 TERRESTIAL RESPIRATORY
SYSTEMS
Tracheal System of Insects
respiratory organs consists of a branching
system of air tubes which supplies oxygen
directly to the tissues
Parts
tracheal trunk short segmental branches
that lead outside to spiracles and in fine
branches, the tracheoles, connected
directly to the tissues
spiracles where exchange of gases occur
 TERRESTIAL RESPIRATORY
SYSTEMS
Lung System of Vertebrates

Parts
glottis median slit, posterior to the tongue which leads to
the larynx
arytenoids pair of cartilages on both sides of the glottis
which is covered by mucous
cricoid cartilage ring shaped cartilage that borders
arytenoids
vocal cords a pair of elastic, thread-like bands
lungs pair of spongy sacs where larynx leads to
Excretory System
 Frogs Excretory System
Kidney
flat, ovoid reddish organs lying in a space
retroperitoneal
adrenals maybe observed as the yellowish streaks on the
ventral surface
Cisterna Magna
space between the muscles of the dorsal body wall and
the peritoneum
Mesonephric or Wollfian Duct
thread like tubular structure on the lateral side of each
kidney
continues posteriorly beyond the kidney and enters the
cloaca separately on its dorsal wall
Urinary Bladder
connected to the ventral wall of the cloaca which serves
as storage of urine
Parts of the
Excretory System

8. Kidney

9. Urinary Bladder
 Mammalian Kidney
Kidney substance is easily divisible into two regions:
outer cortex
- contains the microscopic renal corpuscles and tubules
inner medulla
- contains collecting tubules that open at the renal papilla

Renal Pelvis
- where renal papilla opens
- expanded beginning in the ureter or metanephric duct

Metanephric Duct
leads tourinary bladder

Ureter
closely associated with blood vessels
* all are found in a concavity called the hilus
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
 Function of the Circulatory System

Responsible for the transport of gases,

nutrients, metabolic wastes, hormones and
other substances in the different parts of the
body.

It assists in maintaining constancy of the

internal environment (homeostasis) of the
organism
 OPEN SYSTEM
Heart
Pericardial sinus cavity where the heart lies; open at the posterior end

Dorsal Diaphragm membrane forming the ventral wall of the pericardial

sinus

Aorta vessel from the anterior end of the heart, which opens into the
sinuses of the head

Composed of a series of chambers

Ostia: paired lateral openings at the posterior end of each chamber which
are guarded by valves
 Path of Blood
Colorless blood from the pericardial sinus enters
each chamber thru these openings.

Blood is kept in circulation by the rhythmic

contraction of the chambers of the heart from the
posterior to the anterior chambers of the aorta

Blood then permeates into the different parts of the

body and finally returns to the pericardial sinus
through the posterior opening.
 CLOSED SYSTEM
Blood Vascular System

Composed of:
a. Blood
b. Heart
- pumping action of the heart creates
pressure that drives - the blood to the
different parts of the body
c. Arteries
- conveys blood from the heart to the
different parts of the body
d. Veins
- convey blood back to the heart
e. Capillaries
- connect arterioles with the venules
Arterioles small arteries
Venules small veins
 Lymphatic System
Composed of:
Lymph vessels
Lymph spaces
Lymph circulating fluid

Where is it located?
Dorso-lateral subcutaneous connective tissue
Tissue connecting the skin to the body wall
Dorsal subcutaneous lymph space
space between the skin and the dorsal body wall
where lymph is pumped into veins by lymph hearts
Lymph Hearts
Contractile hearts found between the third vertebra and the
posterior corners of the suprascapula
Anterior Abdominal Vein
underneath the linea alba
 HEART
a. Pericardial cavity
where the heart lies
separated from the pleuroperitoneal cavity by the
transverse septum
b. Parietal pericardium (pericardial sac)
lining of the heart which continues as the visceral
pericardium
c. Visceral pericardium
d. Transverse Septum
Separates the pericardial cavity and the
pleuroperitoneal cavity
e. Pleuroperitoneal Cavity
contains the visceral organs (minus the heart)
CHAMBERS OF THE HEART
Sinus venosus
Dark colored triangular structure, connected to the ventral wall of the right
atrium

Left and Right atria

anterior, thin walled

Ventricle
posterior, thick walled

Conus arteriosus
bulb like, lies obliquely on the dorsal wall of the right atrium
base of all the arteries
arises from the antero-ventral side of the ventricle
* Contraction Systole
* Relaxation Diastole
Ventral Aspect
Ventricle
Right Atrium
Left Atrium
Conus Arteriosus
Truncus Arteriosus
Pulmocutaneous Artery
Systemic Artery
Common Carotid Artery
Dorsal Aspect
1. Ventricle
2. Right Atrium
3. Left Atrium
4. Sinus Venosus
5. Pulmonary Vein
6. Pulmocutaneous Arches
7. Systemic Arches
8. Common Carotid Arches
 VENOUS SYSTEM
Principal Divisions

Systemic
carry unoxygenated blood from the different parts of the body directly
to the right atrium

Portal
carry unoxygenated blood through a system of blood capillaries in
the liver or kidney from where the blood is recollected by systemic veins
to be brought back to the right atrium of the heart

Pulmonary
carry oxygenated blood from the lungs directly to the left atrium
 VEINS
Left/Right Precaval veins
a.k.a. anterior vena cava
big blood vessels entering the Sinus venosus antero-lateral angles
Postcaval vein
a.k.a. posterior vena cava

Veins connected to the Anterior vena cava

a. External jugular vein
anterior
b. Innominate vein
c. Subclavian vein
Brachial vein
Musculocutaneous vein
 PORTAL VEINS
Hepatic Portal System
Consist of the:
a. Hepatic portal vein
drains blood from the following tributaries
gastric vein from the stomach
splenic vein from the spleen
pancreatic vein from the pancreas
intestinal veins from the small intestines
Ventral abdominal vein
brings the drained blood to the liver

b. Hepatic vein
 PORTAL VEINS
Renal Portal System
Consist of the:
a. Renal portal vein
lies on the lateral margin of the kidney alongside the mesonephric
duct
b. Veins that drain from the dorsal body wall
c. Oviduct (for females)
d. Femoral vein
anterior and dorsal sides of the thigh and the rest of the hindlimb
e. Pelvic vein
medial branch of the femoral vein before joining the renal portal
vein
course along the posterior abdominal wall, where they receive short
veins from the urinary bladder, and then
unite ventrally to form the anterior abdominal vein
f. Sciatic vein
posterior side of the thigh
 Pulmonary Veins

from the lungs they enter the left

atrium
 ARTERIAL SYSTEM

Arteries
thick-walled, light colored, generally deeply
set in the body
blood flow is pulsating or in spurts
carry oxygenated blood (minus the
pulmonary artery)
 ARTERIAL SYSTEM
Ventral Side of the Heart

Conus arteriosus
arises from the right antero ventral side of the
ventricle
serves as the base of all arteries

Truncus arteriosus
anterior of the conus arteriosus
immediately divides into the left and right trunks
Arteries connected to the Truncus
arteriosus
Common carotid artery
anterior branch
divides into two branches:
Internal carotid artery
carotid gland round yellowish gland located near the base
External carotid artery
Systemic artery
middle branch
arches dorsally and posteriorly
gives small branches to the:
Larynx, muscles of the jaw, dorsal side of the esophagus, orbit, nose, vertebral
column
Pulmocutaneous Artery
 Branches of Systemic Artery
Subclavian artery
supplies the shoulder and neighboring parts
brachial artery: subclavian artery that continues to the forearm
Pulmocutaneous artery
posterior
Dorsal Aorta
posterior continuation of the unified left and right systemic arches
Coeliaco-mesenteric artery
arising ventrally at the junction of the systemic arches and dorsal aorta
divides into the:
coeliac artery
anterior mesenteric artery
 Branches of Systemic Artery
Posterior mesenteric artery
unpaired artery near the posterior end of the aorta, arising from its
ventral side
Left/Right common Iliac arteries
the split of the posterior end of the aorta
Femoral artery
small dorsally directed artery posterior to the common iliac
supplies blood to the skin and muscles of the anterior part of the
thigh
Sciatic artery
common iliac artery that proceeds to the rest of the hindlimb
Internal Structure of the Frogs
Heart and Its Branches
a. Right Atrium
larger thin walled chamber of the heart
b. Left Atrium
smaller thin-walled chamber of the heart
has openings on its dorsal wall near interatrial septum for
pulmonary veins
c. Interatrial septum
divides the left and right atrium
d. Sinoatrial aperture
oval opening on the dorsal wall of the right atrium
serves as the entrance of blood from the sinus venosus
Internal Structure of the Frogs
Heart and Its Branches
e. Ventricle
large thick walled chamber
f. Muscular Pockets
located at the inner wall of the ventricle
g. Atrioventricular apertures
connects the atria and ventricle
serves as entrance of blood to the ventricle
guarded by valves which prevent back-flow of blood
h. Septa
two longitudinal division within truncus arteriosus
divides truncus into three channels
Parts
1.Spiral valve
2. Right atrium
3. Left atrium
4. Ventricle
5. Truncus arteriosus
6. Pulmocutaneous arch
7. Systemic arch
8. Carotid arch
 Internal Anatomy of the
Mammalian Heart
a. ventricles
constitute the bulk of the heart
thick walled and highly muscular
b. apex
posterior narrow portion
c. base
broad anterior portion
d. atria
anterior to the base
thin-walled and dark colored
right atrium- bigger
left atrium- smaller
where pulmonary v. enters
 Internal Anatomy of the
Mammalian Heart
e. Interatrial septum
separates right from left atrium
f. Sinus venosus
in adults is incorporated into this region as Sinoatrial node (SA)
g. Interventricular septum
completely partitions the ventricles
right ventricle
is smaller and thinner walled
left ventricle
includes the apex
bigger and thicker walled
 Internal Anatomy of the
Mammalian Heart
h. right atrio-ventricular aperture
opening between the right atrium and right ventricle
guarded by three membranous flaps or TRICUSPID VALVES
i. left atrio-ventricular aperture
opening between the left atrium and left ventricle
guarded by two membranous flaps or BICUSPID VALVES or
MITRAL VALVE
j. trabeculae carne
muscular ridges that deeply cleave the inner walls of the ventricles
k. papillary muscles
pointed finger-like muscles
project from the walls of the ventricles
 Internal Anatomy of the
Mammalian Heart
l. chordae tendinae
fine thread-like fibers connecting the free edges of the
tricuspid and bicuspid valves to the tip of the papillary
muscles
m. pulmonary artery
opening in the right ventricles where the blood leaves
n. semilunar valves
guards the exists of the right ventricle to the aorta
guards the exists of the left ventricle to the pulmonary
arteries
NERVOUS SYSTEM AND
SENSORY ORGANS
Types of Nervous Systems
1. Diffuse type or nerve net
Simplest type of N.S.
Found in Coelenterates (Hydra)
Termed nerve net because it consists of a network of nerve cells, each
with a number of processes radiating from the cell body in all directions
The processes of neighboring nerve cells connects to one another to
form a continuous network.
Called diffuse type because primitive nerve cells (neuries or
protoneurons) non-polar; nerve impulses are conducted in all
directions from point of stimulation, no definite pathways
In higher types of nerve cells, nerve impulses travel in one direction
only (cell body axon)
Main distinguishable characteristic: Lack of centralization or
absence of concentrations of nerve cell bodies at certain areas
of the body of the animal.
Types of Nervous Systems
2. Ladder type
Dugesia (flatworm)
Has cephalization head region
Parts:
Cerebral ganglia primitive brain formed from aggregation of nerve cells
Longitudinal nerve cords lie parallel to each other and pass posteriorly
along most of the entire length of the body
Transverse nerves rung-like structures of a ladder that connect
longitudinal nerves into a linear seriesn hence the term ladder type of
nervous system
Lateral nerves innervate the body wall and other structures, arises
from transverse nerves
Types of Nervous Systems
3. Ganglionic type
Found in Annelids and arthropods
Consists of:
A. Dorsal Brain (Cerebral ganglia)
located in the head
B. Ventral Nerve Cord
extends from the brain posteriorly along the length of the rest of the
body
Consists of a segmental series of paired, closely approximated ganglia
which are connected by two longitudinal nerves strands
C. Longitudinal nerve strands
forms double chain of ganglia
Arthropods
N.S. is more centralized and has fewer ganglia due to migration and
fusion in the thorax and abdomen.
Longitudinal nerve strands tend to fuse into a single strand.
Types of Nervous Systems
4. Tubular type
Found in vertebrates
Tubular: vertebrate brain and spinal cord are hollow.
Brain cavities, termed ventricles, are continued with the central
canal of the spinal cord.
Types of Nervous
System
 Overall Organization of the
Vertebrate N.S.
composed of:

1. central nervous system

includes the brain and the spinal cord
serves as a central exchange or switchboard

2. peripheral nervous system

consists of nerve cells and nerve fibers which connect to the
C.N.S. to all parts of the body

3. the sense organs

 Peripheral Nervous System
subdivided into the:

Somatic N. S.
innervates skeletal muscles, skin, and certain other body parts
responsible for movement of various parts of the body thru reflex actions
and conscious control of will

Autonomic/Visceral N.S.
innervates cardiac muscles, smooth muscles, and glands
governs and controls the functions of the viscera (heart, digestive tract,
glands, etc)
carried out automatically and controlled at the unconscious level
Includes the:
Sympathetic N.S.
Parasympathetic N.S.
*Both have antagonistic effects
 Autonomic Nervous System
It consists of the cranial nerves and spinal nerves from the
spinal cord.
Frog: 10 pairs
Man: 12 pairs
Spinal nerves
consist of:
a. Sensory/Afferent
Transmit impulses from the receptors to the C.N.S.
b. Motor efferent
Transmit impulses from the C.N.S. to the effectors
 Spinal Nerves
1st to 9th Spinal Nerve exit through the intervertebral
foramina
10th gets out through the lateral foramina at the anterior third
of the urostyle
Glands of Swammerdam or Periganglionic glands: masses of
white calcareous materials found at the sites of the exit of the
nerves.
 Spinal Nerves
Spinal nerves
1st connect with larger 2nd spinal nerve to form Brachial plexus
2nd largest of the first three spinal nerves and connects with them to form
Brachial plexus
- main trunk extends to the forelimb as the brachial nerve
3rd - connect with the larger 2nd Spinal Nerve to form the Brachial Plexus.
*Plexus- a network of communicating nerve fibers
4th - extend postero-laterally do not form a plexus.
5th - extend postero-laterally do not form a plexus.
6th - extend postero-laterally do not form a plexus
7th - are sharply directed posteriorly and goes along with the 8th and 9th
spinal nerve to form the lumbo-sacral or sciatic plexus.
8th - Joins with the 9th to form the Sciatic Nerve
9th - Joins with the 8th to form the Sciatic Nerve
10th - lies close to the side of the Urostyle (hard to see)
 Autonomic Nervous System
consists of 2 delicate chains of ganglia
(Sympathetic Trunk) and several unpaired ganglia
a. Sympathetic Trunk
originate from the cranial cavity
lie alongside the systemic arch and dorsal aorta
b. Jugular foramina
located lateral to the occipital condyles
c. Sympathetic ganglia
node like structures found at varying intervals along the trunks
d. Rami communicantes or Visceral rami
connected to the sympathetic ganglia
* P.N.S. does not form an orderly chain of ganglia and need not be dissected.
 Central Nervous System
The brain and the spinal cord are enveloped by two meninges
or membrane:
Outer pigmented Dura Matter
Pia Matter
*Both inseparately adhere to the nervous tissue.
Subdural Space in between the 2; filled with cerebrospinal
fluid
 Parts of the Frog Brain
1. Telencephalon or cerebral hemispheres
Enlarged elongated bodies separated medially by a groove, found at the
anterior part of the brain
Found here are complex centers of consciousness and sensations
2. Olfactory bulbs
3. Telencephalon
where the first pair of cranial nerves, the olfactory nerves originate.
4. Olfactory nerves first pair of cranial nerves
5. Diencephalons (thalamencephalon or twixtbrain
depressed unpaired lobe posterior to the Telencephalon
The relay center for sensory impulses; centers of regulating body
temperature, water balance; carbohydrate and fat metabolism
6. Anterior Choroid Plexus
thin membrane that acts as the roof of dicencephalon
7. Pineal body or epiphysis
arising from the median dorsal surface of the diencephalon
has an endocrine function
 Parts of the Frog Brain
8. Mesencephalon or optic lobes
a pair of rounded bodies posterior to the diencephalons
where visual and auditory reflex centers are located.
9. Metencephalon or cerebellum
the narrow fold posterior to the mesencepahlon
Responsible for muscle coordination and proprioception
10. Myelencephalon or medulla oblongata
Triangular portion posterior to the metencephalon. Its broad anterior portion
is partly covered dorsally by the metencephalon, while its tapered portion is
continuous with the spinal cord
Located in the various areas of the medulla oblongata are the reflex centers
that control respiration, heart rate, dilation and constriction of blood vessels
and swallowing.
11. Fourth ventricle
The triangular cavity of the which is covered by a thin highly vascular
membrane
12. Posterior choroids plexus
thin highly vascular membrane covering fourth ventricle
 Parts of the Frog Brain
12. Filum terminale
tapering posterior portion where the spinal cord extends from the
myelencephalon
occupies the cavity of the urostyle
13. dorsal median sulcus
groove that extends along the median region of the spinal cord
14. Ventral median fissure
the corresponding ventral groove of the Dorsal median sulcus
 Parts of the Frog Brain
Ventral Aspect
15. Optic chiasma
ventral side of the dicencephalon
formed by the crossing of the fibers of the second pair of cranial
nerves
16. Optic nerves
the second pair of cranial nerves
17. Infundibulum
bilobed extension of the diencephalons, posterior to the optic
chiasma
18. Hypophysis or pituitary body
a small round gland attached to the postero-ventral side of the
infundibulum, which lies on a depression on the floor of the skull
The hypophysis has endocrine functions regulated by
neurosecretions produced in the diencephalons
19. Sella tursica
depression on the floor of the skull
 Parts of the Frog Brain
Ventricles of the brain

1. first and second lateral ventricles

cavity of the cerebral hemispheres
communicate with the cavity of the olfactory bulbs
2. rhincoeles
cavity of the olfactory bulbs
3. third ventricle
communicates with the lateral ventricles through narrow opening
foramen of Monro
4. Foramen of Monro
narrow opening of the third ventricle
 Parts of the Frog Brain
Ventricles of the brain

5. optic ventricles or opticoeles

expanded cavities in the mesencecephalon
6. Iter or aqueduct of Sylvus
narrow cannal where the third and optic ventricles connect with
forth ventricle
7. Fourth ventricle
continous posteriorly with the cavity of the spinal cord
8. Central canal or canalis centralis
cavity of the spinal cord
F
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 Sense Organs
The Eyes
1. Sclerotic coat
the outermost coat of the eye
Tough, opaque, protective structure that maintains the shape of the
eyeball.
2. Cornea
anterior portion of the sclerotic coat
3. Conjuctiva
thin, transparent membrane covering the outer surface of the cornea and
continuous with the inner surface of the eyelids
4. Optic Nerve
White, thread-like structure that can be observed at the posterior part of
the eyeball.
5. Retractor bulbi
muscles attached to the sclerotic coat around the optic nerve which pulls
the eye into the orbit
*Six other muscles are attached to the eyeball at different anges are
responsible for other eye movement.
 Sense Organs
The Ear
Sense organs of hearing and equilibrium
Frogs ear is composed of two parts:

Middle ear
1. external tympanic membrane
2. columella
rod-like bone located inside the tympanic cavity
extends across the tympanic cavity to the wall of the skull.
3. Eustachian tube
where tympanic cavity connects with buccal cavity

Inner ear
Frog Ear