CHAPTER 36

SKELETAL, MUSCULAR, AND INTEGUMENTARY

SYSTEMS
36-1 The Skeletal System
 The Skeleton
The skeleton supports the body, protects internal
organs, provides for movement, stores internal
reserves, and provides a site for blood cell formation.
The human body would collapse without its skeleton.
Bones protect the internal organs of the body.
Bones provide a system of levers on which muscles act to
produce movement
Bones contain reserves of minerals, mainly calcium salts,
that are important to many body processes.
Bones are the site of blood cell formation. Blood cells are
produced in the soft marrow tissue that fills the internal
cavities in some bones.
 There are 206 bones in the adult human skeleton.
Bones can be divided into two parts axial skeleton and
the appendicular skeleton.
Axial skeleton supports the central axis of the body. It
is made up of the skull, the vertebral column, and the
rib cage.
Appendicular skeleton made up of the bones of the
arms and legs, pelvis and shoulder area
 Structure of Bones
Bones are a solid network of living cells and protein
fibers that are surrounded by deposits of calcium salts.
Periosteum a tough layer of connective tissue that
surrounds the bone. Blood vessels that pass through
the periosteum carry oxygen and nutrients to the bone
Haversian canals a network of tubes that run
through bone that contain blood vessels.
Spongy bone is a less dense tissue that is found inside
the outer layer of compact bone. It is not actually soft
and spongy. It is very strong.
 Bone marrow soft tissue in the cavities of bones. There is
yellow and red bone marrow. Yellow marrow is made up of
mostly fat cells. Red marrow produces red blood cells, some
white blood cells, and cell fragments called platelets.
Development of Bones
The skeleton of an embryo is made up almost entirely of
cartilage, which is connective tissue.
Cartilage doesnt contain blood vessels.
Cartilage is found in flexible parts of the body, like the tip of
the nose and the external ears.
Ossification the process of bone formation (when cartilage
is replaced by bone)
Ossification takes place up to seven months before birth.
 Types of Joints
Joint a place where one bone attaches to another
bone
Joints permit bones to move without damaging each
other
Depending on its type of movement, a joint is classified
as immovable, slightly movable, or freely moveable.
 Immovable joints allow no movement. The bones
are interlocked and held together by connective tissue,
or they are used. Ex the skull
Slightly moveable permit a small amount of
restricted movement Ex the joints between the two
bones of the lower leg and the joints between adjacent
vertebrae
Freely moveable joints permit movement in one or
more directions
-ball and socket joints (shoulder)
-hinge joint (knee)
- pivot joint (elbow)
-saddle joint (knuckles)
 Structure of Joints
In freely movable joints, cartilage covers the surfaces
where two bones come together to protect the bones as
they move against each other. The joints are also
surrounded by a fibrous joint capsule that helps hold the
bones together . The joint capsule consists of two
layers. One layer is called ligaments. Ligaments are
strips of tough connective tissue that hold bones
together in a joint.
Cells in the other layer of the joint capsule produce a
substance called synovial fluid, which enables the
surfaces of the joint to slide over each other smoothly.
 Skeletal System Disorders
Loss of calcium in bones can lead to osteoporosis.
Bones can fracture easily.
Too much strain on a joint can lead to inflammation,
which is swelling caused by excess fluid.
Arthritis is inflammation in the joint itself.
36-2 The Muscular System
 Types of Muscle Tissue

There are three different types of muscle tissue:

skeletal, smooth, and cardiac
Skeletal Muscles - attached to bones, responsible for
voluntary movements . Skeletal muscles look like they
have alternating light and dark bands or stripes called
striations. Because of this, skeletal muscle is sometimes
called striated muscle.
Smooth Muscles usually not under voluntary control.
Smooth muscles cells are spindle-shaped, have one
nucleus, and is not striated. Found in hollow structures
such as the stomach, blood vessels, and the small and
large intestines. Smooth muscles move food through
your digestive tract, control the way blood flows through
your circulatory system, and decrease the size of the
pupils of your eyes in bright light.
Cardiac Muscle Cardiac muscle is only found in the
heart.
 Muscle Contraction
The muscle fibers in skeletal muscles are made up of
smaller structures called myofibrils. Each myofibril is
made up of even smaller structures called filaments.
The striations in skeletal muscle cells are formed by an
alternating pattern of thick and thin filaments. The
thick filaments contain a protein called myosin. The
thin filaments are made up mostly of a protein called
actin.
A muscle contracts when the thin filaments in the
muscle fiber slide over the thick filaments.
The energy for muscle contraction is supplied by ATP.
 Control of Muscle Contraction
Skeletal muscles are useful only if they contract in a
controlled way.
Neuromuscular junction the point of contact
between a motor neuron and a skeletal muscle cell.
Acetylcholine a neurotransmitter released by
vesicles in the axon terminals of the motor neurons.
 When a muscle contracts, acetylcholine produces an
impulses which causes the release of calcium ions
within the muscle fiber. From the time a nerve impulse
reaches a muscle cell, it is only a few milliseconds
before these events occur and the muscle cell
contracts.
A muscle cell remains contracted until the release of
acetylcholine stops and an enzyme produced at the
axon terminal destroys any remaining acetylcholine.
Then the cell pumps calcium ions back into storage, the
cross-bridges stop forming and the contraction ends.
 How Muscles and Bones Interact
Skeletal muscles are joined to bones by tough
connective tissues call tendons. Tendons pull on the
bones and make them work like levers.
Most skeletal muscles work in opposing pairs. When
one muscle contracts, the other relaxes. When the
biceps muscle in the upper arm contracts, it bends the
elbow joint. When the triceps muscle contracts, it
opens the elbow joint. A controlled movement requires
contraction by both muscles, like holding a tennis racket
or violin. Both the biceps and triceps contract in
balance.
 36-3 The Integumentary
System
 The skin and its related structures, like hair, nails, and
glands, made up the integumentary system

The skin is the largest organ of the body

 The Skin
The integumentary system serves as a barrier against
infection and injury, helps to regulate body
temperature, removes waste products from the body,
and provides protection against ultraviolet radiation
from the sun.
The skin is made up of two main layers: The epidermis
and the dermis.
Beneath the dermis is a layer of fat (hypodermis) and
loose connective tissue that help insulate the body.
 Epidermis the outer layer of the skin

The outside layer (that comes in contact with the

environment) is made up of dead cells.
The inner layer is made up of living cells
The cells in the inner layer go through rapid cell division.
The new cells push the old cells to the surface of the skin.
The older cells become flattened and their organelles
disintegrate. They being making keratin, which is a
tough, fibrous protein. The keratin-producing cells die
and form a tough, flexible waterproof covering of the
surface of the skin. This outer layer of dead cells is shed
or washed way once every four to five weeks.
 Melanin a dark brown pigment produced in cells
called melanocytes.
Melanin protects the skin from damage by absorbing
ultraviolet rays from the sun. Differences in skin color
are caused by the different amount of melanin and
where they are distributed.
 Dermis The inner layer of the skin.
The dermis lies beneath the epidermis and contains
collagen fibers, blood vessels, nerve endings, glands,
sensory receptors, smooth muscles, and hair follicles.
The skin helps to maintain homeostasis by regulating
body temperature. On a cold day, the blood vessels in
the dermis narrow, helping to limit heat loss. On a hot
day, the blood vessels widen, bringing hear from the
bodys core to the skin and increasing heat loss.
The dermis contains two major types of glands: sweat
glands and sebaceous glands.
Sweat glands produce sweat when the body gets too hot.

Sebaceous glands produce an oily secretion call sebum.

Sebum spreads out along the surface of the skin and
helps to keep the keratin-rich epidermis flexible and
waterproof.
Skin cancer an abnormal growth of cells in the skin
which can be caused by excessive exposure to the
ultraviolet radiation in sunlight. Protect yourself by
wearing a hat, sunglasses, and clothes that cover your
skin! And use sunscreen!
 Hair and Nails
Hair and nail is made with keratin. In other animals,
keratin forms structures like bull horns, reptile scales,
bird feathers, and porcupine quills
Hair has an important function. Hair on the head
protects the scalp from ultraviolet light from the sun and
keeps us warm in the cold. Hairs in the nostrils, external
ear canals, and eyelashes prevent dirt and other particles
from entering the body.
Hair follicle cells that produce hair

Hair is a large column of cells that have filled with

keratin and then died. Rapid cell growth at the base of
the hair follicle causes the hair to grow longer.
 Nails grow from the nail root, which is an area of rapidly
dividing cells.
Nails are also made by keratin. Nails protect the tips of
the fingers and toes.
Nails grow at an average rate of 3 millimeters per
month, and fingernails grow four times faster than toe
nails.