CH-2 Control Drive systems

and components

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 Week 4 contents
Sensors
Sensor characteristics
Sensors Used in Robotics
Position sensors
Velocity sensors
Acceleration sensors
Force/Pressure
Torque
Micro switches
Light and infrared sensors
Touch and Tactile Sensors
Proximity Sensors
Range Finders
Vision System
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 Sensors
In robotics, sensors are used for both internal feedback
control and external interaction with the outside
environments.
In a robot, as the links and joints move, sensors such as
potentiometers, encoders, resolvers send signals to the
controller that allow it to determine where each joint is.
In certain cases, the sensors may be similar in function to
that of the humans, such as vision, touch and smell.
In other cases, the sensors may be something humans do
not have, such as a radioactive sensor.
There are many different types of sensors available that
measure different phenomena.
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 Sensor characteristics
To choose an appropriate sensor for a particular need,
one has to consider a number of different characteristics.
These characteristics determine the performance,
economy, easy of application and applicability of the
sensor.
In certain situations, different types of sensors may be
available for the same purpose.
In all these cases, the following may be considered
before a sensor is chosen:

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 Sensor characteristics

Cost Sensitivity
Size Linearity
Weight Range
Type of output Response time
Interfacing Frequency response
Resolution Reliability
Accuracy
Resolution=full range Repeatability
2n
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 Position sensors
Position sensors are used to measure displacement, both
rotary and linear as well as movements.
In many cases, such as in encoders, the position
information may also be used to calculate velocities.
The following are common position sensors used in
robotics:
Potentiometers
Encoders
Linear Variable Differential Transformers (LVDT)
Resolvers
Time of Travel (Magneto Reflective) displacement
sensors 6
 Position sensors contd..
Potentiometers
A potentiometer converts position information into a
variable voltage through a resistor.
As the sweeper on the resistor move due to a change in
position, the proportion of the resistance before or after
the point of contact with the sweeper compared with the
total resistance varies.

vcc R

R1 vout

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 Position sensors contd..
Since in this capacity the potentiometer acts as a voltage divider,
the output will be proportional to the resistance as
vout vcc R1 R
= /

Potentiometers are electrical resistance elements made in both

linear & rotary form.
A mechanical motion of the wiper changes the output voltage in
proportion to the wiper displacement.
Potentiometers are generally used as internal feedback sensors
in order to report the position of joints and links.
Potentiometers are used alone or together with other sensor such
as encoders.
In this case, the encoder report the position of joints and links.
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 Position sensors contd..
Encoders
Encoders are sensors that generate digital signals in
response to movement.
Both shaft encoders, which respond to rotation, and
linear encoders, which respond to motion in a line, are
available.
When used in conjunction with mechanical conversion
devices, such as rack-and-pinions, measuring wheels, or
spindles, shaft encoders can also be used to measure
linear movement, speed, and position.
The encoder wheel or strip is divided into small
sections, each section is either opaque or clear.
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 A light source, such as a LED, on one side provides a beam
of light to the other side of the wheel or strip, where it is
seen by another light- sensitive sensor, such as a
phototransistor. Or
(Optical sensing of encoder position is used
A light source (LED or light-emitting diode) is placed on one
side of the encoder disk
A light detector (phototransistor) is on the other side.)
Encoders are available with a choice of outputs.
Incremental encoders generate a series of pulses as they move
These pulses can be used to measure speed, or be fed to a
counter to keep track of position.
Absolute encoders generate multi-bit digital words that
indicate actual position directly. 10
Position sensors contd..

phototransistor

Light source

phototransistor

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Light source
 Position sensors contd..
Incremental Coding
Incremental encoders provide a specific number of equally spaced
pulses per revolution (PPR) or per inch or millimeter of linear
motion.
A single channel output is used for applications where sensing the
direction of movement is not important.
Where direction sensing is required, quadrature output is used, with
two channels 90 electrical degrees out of phase; circuitry determines
direction of movement based on the phase relationship between
them.
This is useful for processes that can reverse, or must maintain net
position when standing still or mechanically oscillating.
For example, machine vibration while stopped could cause a
unidirectional encoder to produce a stream of pulses that would be
erroneously counted as motion. 12
 Position sensors contd..
Incremental Coding

X1 is output of leading edges for one channel only

X2 is output of leading and trailing edges for one channel only
X4 is output of leading and trailing edges for two channel only

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 Position sensors contd..
When more resolution is needed, its possible for the
counter to count the leading and trailing edges of the pulse
train from one channel, which doubles (2) the number of
pulses counted for one rotation or inch of motion.
Counting both leading and trailing edges of both channels
will give 4 resolution.
The count is subject to loss during a power interruption or
corruption by electrical transients.
When starting up, the equipment must be driven to a
reference or home position to initialize the position
counters.
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 Position sensors contd..
Absolute Coding
An absolute encoder generates digital words that represent the
encoders actual position, as well as its speed and direction of
motion.
If power is lost, its output will be correct whenever power is
restored.
It is not necessary to move to a reference position as with
incremental type encoders.
Electrical transients can only produce transient data errors,
usually too brief to effect the dynamics of a control system.
An absolute encoders resolution is defined as the number of bits
in its output word.
This output can be in straight binary or in gray code, which
produces only a single bit change at each step to reduce errors.
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 Position sensors contd..
Absolute Coding

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 Position sensors contd..
Absolute Coding

Binary code Gray code

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 Position sensors contd..
Linear Variable Differential Transformers
The linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) is an
accurate and reliable method for measuring linear distance.
LVDTs find uses in modern machine-tool, robotics, and
computerized manufacturing.
The LVDT is a position-to-electrical sensor whose output is
proportional to the position of a movable magnetic core.
The core moves linearly inside a transformer consisting of a
center primary coil and two outer secondary coils wound on
a cylindrical form.
The primary winding is excited with an AC voltage source
inducing secondary voltages which vary with the position of
the magnetic core within the assembly. 18
 Position sensors contd..
The secondary windings are wound out of phase with each
other, and when the core is centered the voltages in the two
secondary windings oppose each other, and the net output
voltage is zero.
When the core is moved off center, the voltage in the
secondary toward which the core is moved increases, while
the opposite voltage decreases.
The result is a differential voltage output which varies
linearly with the core s position.
Linearity is excellent over the design range of movement,
typically 0.5% or better.
The LVDT offers good accuracy, linearity, sensitivity, infinite
resolution, as well as frictionless operation and ruggedness.
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Position sensors contd..

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 Position sensors contd..
Resolvers
Resolvers are very similar to LVDTs in principle, but are
used to measure an angular motion.
A resolver is also a transformer, where the primary coils is
connected to the rotating shaft and carries an alternating
current through slip ring.
There are two secondary coils, placed 90 apart from each
other.
As the rotor rotates the flux it develops rotates with it.
When the primary coil in the rotor is parallel to either of the
two secondary coils, the voltage induce in that coil is
maximum, while the other secondary coil that is
perpendicular to it does not develop any voltage. 21
 Position sensors contd..
As the rotor rotates, eventually the voltage in the first
secondary coil goes to zero, while the second coil develops
its maximum voltage.
For all other angles in b/n, the two secondary coils develop
a voltage proportional to the sine and cosine of the angle b/n
the primary and two secondary coils.
Although the output of a resolver is analog, it is equal to
sine cosine of the angle. Resolvers are reliable, robust and
accurate.

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 Position sensors contd..

Resolver

Vi
n=

V2

V1

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 Position sensors contd..
Time of travel (magneto reflective) displacement sensor
In this sensor, a pulse is sent through a conductor, which
bounces back as it reaches a magnet.
The time of travel to the magnet and is converted to the
distance if the speed of travel is known.
By attaching the moving part to either the magnet or the
conductor, the displacement can be measured.
Magnet

Displacement

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Time
 Velocity sensors
The following are the more common velocity sensors used in
robotics.
Their application is very much related to the of position
sensor used.
Encoders
If an encoder is used for displacement measurement, there is
in fact no need to use a velocity sensor.
Since encoders send a known number of signal for any given
angular displacement, by counting the number of signals
received in a given length of time (dt), we can calculate
velocity.
A smaller length of time (dt) yields a more accurate calculate,
one that is closer to the true instantaneous velocity. 25
 Velocity sensors contd..
Tachometer
A tachometer is generator that converts mechanical energy into
electrical energy.
Its output is analog voltage proportional to the input angular
speed.
It may be used along with potentiometers to estimate velocities.
Differentiation of position signal
If the position signal is clean, it is actually possible and even
simple, to differentiate the position signal and to convert it to
velocity signal.
To do this, it is necessary that the signal be as continuous as
possible in order to prevent creation of impulse in velocity
signal. 26
 Velocity sensors contd..
A simple R-C circuit with opamp that can be used for
differentiation, where the velocity signal is
Vout = - RCdVin/dt
Similarly, the velocity (or acceleration) signal can be
integrated to yield position (or velocity) signal:
Vout = - 1/RCVindt
R C
Position C R
signal Velocity
Position
signal
signal

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 Acceleration sensors

Accelerometers are very common sensors for measuring

accelerations.
However, in general, accelerometers are not used with
industrial robots, since no acceleration is generally
measured in these robots.
However, recently, acceleration have been used for high
precision control of linear actuators and for joint feedback
control of robots.

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 Force and Pressure Sensors
Piezoelectric
Piezoelectric material compresses if exposed to a voltage
and produces a voltage if compressed.
This is used in the photograph to create a voltage from the
variable pressure caused by the grooves in record.
Similarly, a piece of piezoelectric can be used to measure
pressures, or forces, in robotics.
The analog output voltage must be conditioned and
amplified for use.
Force-Sensing Resistor
Force-Sensing Resistor (FSR), manufactured by Interlink
Electronics, is a polymer thick film device that exhibits a29
 Force and Pressure Sensors contd..
decreasing resistance with increasing force applied normal to it
surface.
For a change force of 10 to 10000 g, its resistance changes
from about 500 K to 1K .
Strain Gauges
Strain gauges can also be used to measure forces.
The output of the strain gauge is a variable resistance,
proportional to the strain, which itself is a function of applied
forces.
Thus, measuring the resistance, one can determine the applied
force.
Strain gauges are used to determine the force at the end
effector and the wrist of robot. 30
 Force and Pressure Sensors contd..

A G B

(a) A strain gauge and (b) a Wheatstone bridge

Strain gauges can also be used for measuring the loads on
the joints and links of the robot.
A balanced Wheatstone bridge would have similar
potentials at A and B. 31
 Force and Pressure Sensors contd..
If the resistance in any of four resistors changes there will be
current flow b/n these two junctions.
Thus, it is necessary to first calibrate the bridge for zero flow in the
galvanometer.
Assuming that R1 is the strain gauge, when under stress, its value
will change , causing an imbalance in the Wheatstone bridge and a
current flow b/n A and B.
By carefully adjusting the resistance of one of the other resistors
until the current flow becomes zero, the change in the resistance of
the strain gauge can determined from
R1/R4 = R2/R3
Strain gauges are sensitive to temperature changes.
To remedy this problem, dummy strain gauge can be used as one of
the four resistor in the bridge to compensate for temperature
changes. 32
 Torque Sensors
Torque can be measured by a pair of strategically placed
forces sensors.
Suppose that two force sensors are placed on shaft, opposite
of each other, on opposite sides.
If a torque is applied to the shaft, it generates two opposing
forces can the shafts body, causing opposite direction strains.
The two force sensors can measure the forces, which can be
converted to a torque.
To measure torques about different axes, three pairs of
mutually perpendicular sensors must be used.
However, since forces can also be measured with the same
sensors, a total of six forces can generally report forces and
torques about three axes, independent of each other.
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 Torque Sensors contd..
Pure forces generate similar signals in a pair, while torque
pairs of signals with opposite signs.
Fy

My

Fx
Mx
Mz

Fz

Arrangement of three pairs of strain gauges along the three

major axes for force and torque measurements 34
 Micro-switches
Micro-switches, although extremely simple, are very
useful and common in all robotics.
They are used to cut off the electric current through a
conductor and thus they can be used for safety purposes,
for determine contact, for sending signals based on
displacements, and many other uses.
Micro-switches are robust, simple and inexpensive.

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 Light and Infrared Sensors
Light and Infrared Sensors react to the intensity of light
projected on them by changing their electrical resistance.
If the intensity of light is zero, the resistance is at
maximum.
The higher the intensity of light, the lower the resistance is
and consequently, the higher the current is.
A phototransistor can also be used as light sensor, where in
the presence of a minimal amount of light, it will turn on
and otherwise will be off.
Phototransistors are usually used in conjunction with an
LED light source.
A light sensor array can be with a moving light source to
measure displacement as well. 36
 Light and Infrared Sensors contd..
This has been used to measure deflection and small
movements in robotics and other machinery.
Light sensors are very sensitive to the visible light range.
Infrared sensors are sensitive to the infrared range.
Since infrared is invisible to human eyes, it will not
disturb humans if used in devices that project the light out.
Simple infrared remote control devices are also available
that can be used to establish remote control
communication links b/n devices and robots

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