CONSTRUCTION

TECHNOLOGY

CEM 571
NURAINI BT TUTUR
Presentation Title BKBA 2.15
Stages for construction
1. Building
2. Retaining walls, Drainage
3. Road, Highway, Bridges
4. Airports, Offshore/Marine structure
AIRPORT/AIRFEILDS
,
OFFSHORE/MARINE
STRUCTURE
At the end of lectures, student will be able to :
-Identify the different types of airports and
their respective functions. (CO1:PO2)
-Identify the functions of various offshore
structure. (CO1:PO2)
AIRPORTS /
AIRFEILDS
STRUCTURE
AIRFIELDS
Road construction and airfield construction have much in
common, such as construction methods, equipment
used, and sequence of operations.
Each road or airfield requires a subgrade, base course, and
surface course.
The methods of cutting and falling, grading and
compacting, and surfacing are all similar. As with roads, the
responsibility for designing and laying out lies with the same
person the engineering officer.
Again, as previously said for roads, you can expect
involvement when airfield projects occur.
RUNWAY DESIGN CRITERIA
Runway location, length, and alignment are the foremost
design criteria in any airfield plan. The major factors that
influence these three criteria are--

1.Type of using aircraft.

2.Local climate.
3.Prevailing winds.
4.Topography (drainage, earthwork, and clearing).
Location
Select the site using the runway as the feature
foremost in mind.
consider topography, prevailing wind, type of
soil, drainage characteristics.
and the amount of clearing and earthwork
necessary when selecting the site
AIRFIELD DESIGN STEPS
The following is a procedural guide to complete a
comprehensive airfield design. The concepts and required
information are discussed later in this chapter.
1.Select the runway location.
2.Determine the runway length and width.
3.Calculate the approach zones.
4.Determine the runway orientation based on the wind rose.
5.Plot the centerline on graph paper, design the vertical
alignment, and plot the newly designed airfield on the plan
and profile.
6.Design transverse slopes.
7.Design taxiways and aprons.
8.Design required drainage structures.
9.Select visual and nonvisual aids to navigation.
10.Design logistical support facilities.
11.Design aircraft protection facilities.
 Runaway Length

When determining the runway length required for any

aircraft,
include the surface required for landing rolls or takeoff runs
and a reasonable allowance for variations in pilot technique;
psychological factors; wind, snow, or other surface
conditions; and unforeseen mechanical failure.

Determine runway length by applying several correction

factors and a factor of safety to the takeoff ground run (TGR)
established for the geographic and climatic conditions at the
installation.
.
 Runaway Length
Air density, which is governed by temperature and pressure
at the site, greatly affects the ground run required for any
type aircraft. Increases in either temperature or altitude
reduce the density of air and increase the required ground
run.

Therefore, the length of runway required for a specific type

of aircraft varies with the geographic location.

The length of every airfield must be computed based on the

average maximum temperature and the pressure altitude of
the site
At the top is the Surface Course which is usually an asphalt or Portland
cement concrete material. Bound surfaces such as these provide
stability and durability for year-round traffic operations. Asphalt surfaces
are from 5 to 10 cm (2 to 4 inches) thick and concrete surfaces from 23 to
40 cm (9 to 16 inches) thick.

The next layer is the Base Course - a high quality crushed stone or
gravel material necessary to ensure stability under high aircraft tire
pressures. Bases vary in thickness from 15 to 30 cm (6 to 12 inches).
The bottom layer is the Subbase Course which is constructed with non-
frost susceptible but lower quality granular aggregates. Subbases
increase the pavement strength and reduce the effects of frost action on
the subgrade. Subbase thicknesses are usually 30 cm (12 inches) or
more.

These three (3) layers (Surface, Base and Subbase Courses) have a
combined thickness of 60 to 150 cm (2 to 5 feet) and are placed on the
subgrade - the pavement foundation.

The Subgrade is the natural in-situ soil material which has been cut to
grade, or in a fill section, is imported common material built up over the
in-situ material. The subgrade must provide a stable and uniform
support for the overlying pavement structure.
PLANNING AN AIRFIELD
Planning for aviation facilities requires special
consideration of

1.the type of aircraft to be accommodated;

2.physical conditions of the site, including weather
conditions, terrain, soil, and availability of construction
materials;
3.safety factors, such as approach zone obstructions and
traffic control;
4.the provision for expansion;
5.and defense.
6.Under wartime conditions, tactical considerations are also
required.

All of these factors affect the number, orientation, and

dimensions of runways, taxiways, aprons, hardstands,
hangars, and other facilities.
SUBBASE AND BASE COURSE

Pavements (including the surface and underlying Courses)

may be divided into two classesrigid and flexible.
The wearing surface of a rigid pavement is constructed of portland
cement concrete.
Its flexural strength enables it to act as abeam and allows it to
bridge over minor irregularities in the base or subgrade up on
which it rests.
All other pavements are classified as flexible. Any distortion or
displacement in the subgrade of a flexible pavement is reflected
in the base course and upward into the surface course.
These courses tend to conform to the same shape under traffic.
Flexible pavements are used almost exclusively in the
operations for road and airfield construction since they adapt to
nearly all situations and can be built by any construction battalion
unit in the Naval Construction Force (NCF) ate.
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT STRUCTURE

A typical flexible pavement is constructed as shown below, which

also defines the parts or layers of pavement.
All layers shown in the figure are not presenting every flexible
pavement.
For example, a two-layer structure consists of a compacted
subgrade and a base course only.
Figure shows a typical flexible pavement using stabilized layers.
(The word pavement, when used by itself, refers only to the
leveling, binder, and surface course, whereas flexible
pavement refers to the entire pavement structure from the
subgrade up.)
The use of flexible pavements on airfields must be limited to
paved areas not subjected to detrimental effects of jet fuel spillage
and jet blast. In fact, their use is prohibited in areas where these
effects are severe.
shoulders, and overruns. Rigid pavements or special types of flexible pavement, such
as tar rubber, should be specified in certain critical operational areas.
MATERIALS Select materials will normally be locally available coarse-grained
soils, although fine-grained soils may be used in certain cases. Lime rock, coral, shell,
ashes, cinders, caliche, disintegrated granite, and other suchmaterials should be
considered when they are economical.
Subbase Subbase materials may consist of naturally occurring coarse grained
soils or blended and processed soils. Materials, such as lime rock, coral, shell,
ashes, cinders, caliche, and disintegrated granite, maybe used as subbases when
they meet area specifications or project specifications. Materials stabilized with
commercial admixes may be economical as subbases in certain instances. Portland
cement, cutback asphalt,emulsified asphalt, and tar are commonly used for this
purpose.
Base CourseA wide variety of gravels, sands, gravelly and sandy soils, and other
natural materials such as lime rock, corals, shells, and some caliches can be used
alone or blended to provide satisfactory base courses. In some instances, natural
materials will require crushing or removal of the oversize fraction to maintain
gradation limits. Other natural materials may be controlled by mixing crushed and
pit-run materials to form a satisfactory base course material. Many natural
deposits of sandy and gravelly materials also make satisfactory base materials.
Gravel deposits vary widely in the relative proportions of coarse and fine
material and in the character of the rock fragments. Satisfactory base materials often
can be produced by blending materials from two or more deposits. Abase course
made from sandy and gravelly material has a high-bearing value and can be used to
support heavy loads. However, uncrushed, clean washed gravel is not
satisfactory for a base course because the fine material, which acts as the binder
and fills the void between coarser aggregate, has been washed away. Sand and
clay in a natural mixture maybe found in alluvial deposits varying in thickness from 1
flakes should not be confused with sand-clay soil. Mistaking such material for sand-
clay is often a cause of base course failure because of reduced stability caused by the
mica content. With proper proportioning and construction methods, satisfactory
results can be obtained with sand-clay soil. It is excellent in construction where a
higher type of surface is to be added later. Processed materials are prepared by
crushing and screening rock, gravel, or slag. A properly graded crushed-rock base
produced from sound, durable rock particles makes the highest quality of any base
material. Crushed rock may be produced from almost any type of rock that is hard
enough to require drilling, blasting, and crushing. Existing quarries, ledge rock, cobbles
and gravel, talus deposits, coarse mine tailings, and similar hard, durable rock
fragments are the usual sources of processed materials. Materials that crumble on
exposure to air or water should not be used. Nor should processed materials be used
when gravel or sand-clay is available, except when studies show that the use of
processed materials will save time and effort when they are made necessary by project
requirements. Bases made from processed materials can be divided into three
general types-stabilized, coarse graded, and macadam. A stabilized base is one in
which all material ranging from coarse to fine is intimately mixed either before or as
the material is laid into place. A coarse-graded base is composed of crushed rock,
gravel, or slag. This base may be used to advantage when it is necessary to
produce crushed rock, gravel, or slag on site or when commercial aggregates are
available. A macadam base is one where a coarse, crushed aggregate is placed in a
relatively thin layer and rolled into place; then fine aggregate or screenings are placed
on the surface of the coarse-aggregate layer and rolled and broomed into the
coarse rock until it is thoroughly keyed in place. Water may be used in the compacting
and keying process. When water is used, the base is a water-bound macadam. The
crushed rock used for macadam bases should consist of clean, angular, durable
particles free of clay, organic matter, and other objectional material or coating. Any
hard, durable crushed aggregate can be used, provided the coarse aggregate is
Airport Categories

1.Commercial Service Airports are publicly owned airports that have at least
2,500 passenger boardings each calendar year and receive scheduled
passenger service.
2.Non primary Commercial Service Airports are Commercial Service
Airports that have at least 2,500 and no more than 10,000 passenger boardings
each year.
3.Primary Airports are Commercial Service Airports that have more than
10,000 passenger boardings each year.
4.Cargo Service Airports are airports that, in addition to any other air
transportation services that may be available, are served by aircraft providing
air transportation of only cargo with a total annual landed weight of more than
100 million pounds.
5.Reliever Airports are airports designated by the FAA to relieve congestion at
Commercial Service Airports and to provide improved general aviation access
to the overall community. These may be publicly or privately-owned. commonly
described as General Aviation Airports.
Suvarnabhumi Airport Terminal
Suvarnabhumi Airport Terminal
Suvarnabhumi Airport Terminal
Suvarnabhumi Airport Terminal
changi airport
changi airport
changi airport
Chek Lap Kok, or Hong Kong
International Airport,
Q&A
OFFSHORE
STRUCTURE
TYPE OFFSHORE
STRUCTURE
TYPE OFFSHORE
STRUCTURE
 TYPE OFFSHORE
STRUCTURE

Deep water system

TYPE OFFSHORE
STRUCTURE
TYPE OFFSHORE
STRUCTURE
TYPE OFFSHORE
STRUCTURE
TYPE OFFSHORE
STRUCTURE
OFFSHORE
PLATFORM
DESIGN
 OVERVIEW

Offshore platforms are used for exploration of Oil

and Gas from under Seabed and processing.

The First Offshore platform was installed in 1947

off the coast of Louisiana in 6M depth of water.

Today there are over 7,000 Offshore platforms

around the world in water depths up to 1,850M
 OVERVIEW

Platform size depends on facilities to be installed on top

side eg. Oil rig, living quarters, Helipad etc.

Classification of water depths:

< 350 M- Shallow water
< 1500 M - Deep water
> 1500 M- Ultra deep water

US Mineral Management Service (MMS) classifies water

depths greater than 1,300 ft as deepwater, and greater
than 5,000 ft as ultra-deepwater.
 OVERVIEW

Offshore platforms can broadly categorized in two types.

Fixed structures that extend to the Seabed.

1. Steel Jacket
2. Concrete gravity Structure
3. Compliant Tower

Structures that float near the water surface- Recent

development
1. Tension Leg platforms
2. Semi Submersible
3. Spar
4. Ship shaped vessel (FPSO)
 TYPE OF PLATFORMS (FIXED)
JACKETED PLATFORM

1. Space framed structure with

tubular members supported on
6. Underwater, the piles are contained
piled foundations.
inside the legs of a jacket
2. Used for moderate water
structure which serves as bracing
depths up to 400 M.
for the piles against lateral loads.
3. Jackets provides protective
7. The jacket also serves as a
layer around the pipes.
template for the initial driving of the
4. Typical offshore structure will
piles. (The piles are driven through
have a deck structure
the inside of the legs of the jacket
containing a Main Deck, a
structure).
Cellar Deck, and a Helideck.
8. Natural period (usually 2.5 second)
5. The deck structure is supported
is kept below wave period (14 to 20
by deck legs connected to the
seconds) to avoid amplification of
top of the piles. The piles
wave loads.
extend from above the Mean
9. 95% of offshore platforms around
Low Water through the seabed
the world are Jacket supported.
and into the soil.
 TYPE OF PLATFORMS (FIXED)
COMPLIANT TOWER
1. Narrow, flexible framed structures supported by piled
foundations.
2. Has no oil storage capacity. Production is through
tensioned rigid risers and export by flexible or catenary
steel pipe.
3. Undergo large lateral deflections (up to 10 ft) under
wave loading. Used for moderate water depths up to
600 M.
4. Natural period (usually 30 second) is kept above wave
period (14 to 20 seconds) to avoid amplification of
wave loads.
 TYPE OF PLATFORMS (FIXED)
CONCRETE GRAVITY STRUCTURES

1. Fixed-bottom structures made from concrete

2. Heavy and remain in place on the seabed without the
need for piles
3. Used for moderate water depths up to 300 M.
4. Part construction is made in a dry dock adjacent to the
sea. The structure is built from bottom up, like onshore
structure.
5. At a certain point , dock is flooded and the partially built
structure floats. It is towed to deeper sheltered water
where remaining construction is completed.
6. After towing to field, base is filled with water to sink it on
the seabed.
7. Advantage- Less maintenance
 TYPE OF PLATFORMS (FLOATER)
Tension Leg Platform (TLP)

1. Tension Leg Platforms (TLPs) are

floating facilities that are tied
4. TLP has excess buoyancy which
down to the seabed by vertical
keeps tethers in tension. Topside
steel tubes called tethers.
facilities , no. of risers etc. have to
2. This characteristic makes the
fixed at pre-design stage.
structure very rigid in the vertical
5. Used for deep water up to 1200 M
direction and very flexible in the
6. It has no integral storage.
horizontal plane. The vertical
7. It is sensitive to topside
rigidity helps to tie in wells for
load/draught variations as tether
production, while, the horizontal
tensions are affected.
compliance makes the platform
insensitive to the primary effect of
waves.
3. Have large columns and
Pontoons and a fairly deep
draught.
 TYPE OF PLATFORMS (FLOATER)
SEMISUB PLATFORM
5. Column pontoon junctions and
1. Due to small water plane area , bracing attract large loads.
they are weight sensitive. Flood 6. Due to possibility of fatigue
warning systems are required to cracking of braces , periodic
be in-place. inspection/ maintenance is
2. Topside facilities , no. of risers prerequisite
etc. have to fixed at pre-design
stage.
3. Used for Ultra deep water.
4. Semi-submersibles are held in
place by anchors connected to a
catenary mooring system.
 TYPE OF PLATFORMS (FLOATER)
SPAR

1. Concept of a large diameter single

vertical cylinder supporting deck.
2. These are a very new and
emerging concept: the first spar
platform, Neptune , was installed
off the USA coast in 1997 .
3. Spar platforms have taut catenary
moorings and deep draught, hence
heave natural period is about 30
seconds.
4. Used for Ultra deep water depth of
2300 M.
5. The center of buoyancy is
considerably above center of
gravity , making Spar quite stable.
6. Due to space restrictions in the
core, number of risers has to be
predetermined.
 TYPE OF PLATFORMS (FLOATER)
SHIP SHAPED VESSEL (FPSO)
1. Ship-shape platforms are called
Floating Production, Storage and
Offloading (FPSO) facilities.
2. FPSOs have integral oil storage
capability inside their hull. This
avoids a long and expensive
pipeline to shore.
3. Can explore in remote and deep
water and also in marginal wells,
where building fixed platform and
piping is technically and
economically not feasible
4. FPSOs are held in position over
the reservoir at a Single Point
Mooring (SPM). The vessel is
able to weathervane around the
mooring point so that it always
faces into the prevailing weather.
 PLATFORM PARTS
TOPSIDE
Facilities are tailored to achieve
weight and space saving
Incorporates process and utility
equipment
1. Drilling Rig
2. Injection Compressors
3. Gas Compressors
4. Gas Turbine Generators
5. Piping
6. HVAC
7. Instrumentation
Accommodation for operating
personnel.
Crane for equipment handling
Helipad
 PLATFORM PARTS
MOORINGS & ANCHORS
Used to tie platform in place
Material
1. Steel chain
2. Steel wire rope
a) Catenary shape due to
heavy weight.
b) Length of rope is more
3. Synthetic fiber rope
a) Taut shape due to
substantial less weight
than steel ropes.
b) Less rope length required
c) Corrosion free
 PLATFORM PARTS
RISER
1. Pipes used for production,
drilling, and export of Oil and 5. Remains in tension due to self
Gas from Seabed.
2. Riser system is a key
component for offshore
drilling or floating production
projects.
3. The cost and technical
challenges of the riser
system increase significantly
with water depth.
4. Design of riser system
depends on filed layout,
vessel interfaces, fluid
properties and environmental
condition.
weight
6. Profiles are designed to reduce
load on topside. Types of risers
i. Rigid
ii. Flexible - Allows vessel motion
due to wave loading and
compensates heave motion
a) Simple Catenary
risers: Flexible pipe is
freely suspended
between surface
vessel and the
seabed.
b) Other catenary
variants possible
 PLATFORM INSTALLATION
BARGE LOADOUT

Various methods are deployed based

on availability of resources and size
of structure.
Barge Crane
Flat over - Top side is installed
on jackets. Ballasting of barge
Smaller jackets can be
installed by lifting them off
barge using a floating vessel
with cranes .
Large 400 x 100 deck barges
capable of carrying up to 12,000 tons
are available
 CORROSION PROTECTION

1. The usual form of corrosion protection of the

underwater part of the jacket as well as the upper
part of the piles in soil is by cathodic protection using
sacrificial anodes.
2. A sacrificial anode consists of a zinc/aluminium bar
cast about a steel tube and welded on to the
structures. Typically approximately 5% of the jacket
weight is applied as anodes.
3. The steelwork in the splash zone is usually protected
by a sacrificial wall thickness of 12 mm to the
members.
 PLATFORM FOUNDATION
FOUNDATION

1. The loads generated by

environmental conditions plus by
onboard equipment must be
resisted by the piles at the seabed
and below.
2. The soil investigation is vital to the
design of any offshore structure.
Geotech report is developed by
doing soil borings at the desired
location, and performing in-situ and
laboratory tests.
3. Pile penetrations depends on
platform size and loads, and soil
characteristics, but normally range
from 30 meters to about 100 meters.
 NAVAL ARCHITECTURE
HYDROSTATICS AND STABILITY
1. Stability is resistance to capsizing
2. Center of Buoyancy is located at
center of mass of the displaced
water.
3. Under no external forces, the
center of gravity and center of
buoyancy are in same vertical
plane.
4. Upward force of water equals to
the weight of floating vessel and
this weight is equal to weight of
displaced water
5. Under wind load vessel heels,
and thus CoB moves to provide
righting (stabilizing) moment.
6. Vertical line through new center
of buoyancy will intersect CoG at
point M called as Metacenter
7. Intact stability requires righting moment
adequate to withstand wind moments.
8. Damage stability requires vessel
withstands flooding of designated
volume with wind moments.
9. CoG of partially filled vessel changes,
due to heeling. This results in reduction
in stability. This phenomena is called
Free surface correction (FSC).
10. HYDRODYNAMIC RESPONSE:
11. Rigid body response
12. There are six rigid body motions:
a) Translational - Surge, sway and
heave
b) Rotational - Roll, pitch and yaw
13. Structural response - Involving structural
deformations
Before starting the design , you need
to check the followings:
Location of the platform - you need to find how far it is from sea
coast

Function of the platform - Platforms have different functions. You will

find out, this platform for what purpose.....drilling, production,or other..

Field development options - You need to check whether any existing

infrastructure is available in and around

Ship impact factors -You will check whether there is any impact in
existing shipping lanes.

Structure transportation and installation - You need to check with

your project / construction engineering group about the location of
fabrication and module yard.
 STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Loads:
Offshore structure shall be designed
for following types of loads:
1. Permanent (dead) loads.
2. Operating (live) loads.
3. Environmental loads
a) Wind load
b) Wave load
c) Earthquake load
4. Construction - installation
loads.
5. Accidental loads.

The design of offshore structures is

dominated by environmental loads,
especially wave load
 STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Permanent Loads:
Weight of the structure in air,
including the weight of ballast.
1. Weights of equipment,
and associated
structures permanently
mounted on the
platform.

2. Hydrostatic forces on
the members below the
waterline. These forces
include buoyancy and
hydrostatic pressures.
 STRUCTURAL DESIGN
Operating (Live) Loads:
Operating loads include the weight of
all non-permanent equipment or
material, as well as forces generated
during operation of equipment.
1. The weight of drilling,
production facilities, living
quarters, furniture, life support
systems, heliport, consumable
supplies, liquids, etc.
2. Forces generated during
operations, e.g. drilling, vessel
mooring, helicopter landing,
crane operations.
3. Following Live load values are
recommended in BS6235:
4. Crew quarters and passage
ways: 3.2 KN/m 2
5. Working areas: 8,5 KN/m 2
 STRUCTURAL DESIGN
Wind Loads:
Wind load act on portion of platform above
the water level as well as on any
equipment, housing, derrick, etc.
For combination with wave loads, codes
recommend the most unfavorable of the
following two loadings:
1 minute sustained wind speeds
combined with extreme waves.
3 second gusts .
When, the ratio of height to the least
horizontal dimension of structure is
greater than 5, then API-RP2A requires
the dynamic effects of the wind to be
taken into account and the flow induced
cyclic wind loads due to vortex shedding
must be investigated.
 STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Wave load :
The wave loading of an offshore structure is usually the most important of
all environmental loadings.
The forces on the structure are caused by the motion of the water due to
the waves
Determination of wave forces requires the solution of ,
a) Sea state using an idealization of the wave surface profile and the
wave kinematics by wave theory.
b) Computation of the wave forces on individual members and on the
total structure, from the fluid motion.
Design wave concept is used, where a regular wave of given height and period
is defined and the forces due to this wave are calculated using a high-order
wave theory.
Usually the maximum wave with a return period of 100 years, is chosen. No
dynamic behavior of the structure is considered. This static analysis is
appropriate when the dominant wave periods are well above the period of the
structure. This is the case of extreme storm waves acting on shallow water
structures.
 STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Wave Load: (Contd.)

Wave theories
Wave theories describe the
kinematics of waves of water. They
serve to calculate the particle
velocities and accelerations and the
dynamic pressure as functions of
the surface elevation of the waves.
The waves are assumed to be long-
crested, i.e. they can be described
by a two-dimensional flow field, and
are characterized by the
parameters: wave height (H), period
(T) and water depth (d).
 STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Wave theories: (Contd.)

Wave forces on structural members
Structures exposed to waves experience forces much higher than wind
loadings. The forces result from the dynamic pressure and the water
particle motions. Two different cases can be distinguished:
Large volume bodies, termed hydrodynamic compact structures, influence
the wave field by diffraction and reflection. The forces on these bodies
have to be determined by calculations based on diffraction theory.
Slender, hydro-dynamically transparent structures have no significant
influence on the wave field. The forces can be calculated in a straight-
forward manner with Morison's equation. The steel jackets of offshore
structures can usually be regarded as hydro-dynamically transparent
As a rule, Morison's equation may be applied when D/L < 0.2, where D is
the member diameter and L is the wave length.
Morison's equation expresses the wave force as the sum of,
An inertia force proportional to the particle acceleration
A non-linear drag force proportional to the square of the particle
velocity.
 STRUCTURAL DESIGN
Earthquake load:
Offshore structures are designed for
two levels of earthquake intensity.
Strength level :Earthquake,
defined as having a & quot;
reasonable likelihood of not
being exceeded during the
platform's life & quot; (mean
recurrence interval ~ 200 - 500
years), the structure is
designed to respond elastically.
Ductility level : Earthquake,
defined as close to the & quot;
maximum credible earthquake
& quot; at the site, the structure
is designed for inelastic
response and to have
adequate reserve strength to
avoid collapse.
 STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Ice and Snow Loads:

Ice is a primary problem for marine structures in the arctic and sub-arctic zones.
Ice formation and expansion can generate large pressures that give rise to
horizontal as well as vertical forces. In addition, large blocks of ice driven by
current, winds and waves with speeds up to 0,5 to 1,0 m/s, may hit the structure
and produce impact loads. Temperature Load: Temperature gradients produce
thermal stresses. To cater such stresses, extreme values of sea and air
temperatures which are likely to occur during the life of the structure shall be
estimated. In addition to the environmental sources , accidental release of
cryogenic material can result in temperature increase, which must be taken into
account as accidental loads. The temperature of the oil and gas produced must
also be considered. Marine Growth: Marine growth is accumulated on
submerged members. Its main effect is to increase the wave forces on the
members by increasing exposed areas and drag coefficient due to higher
surface roughness. It is accounted for in design through appropriate increases in
the diameters and masses of the submerged members.
 STRUCTURAL DESIGN
Installation Load :
These are temporary loads and arise during
fabrication and installation of the platform or
its components. During fabrication, erection
lifts of various structural components
generate lifting forces, while in the
installation phase forces are generated
during platform load out, transportation to
the site, launching and upending, as well as
during lifts related to installation. All
members and connections of a lifted
component must be designed for the forces
resulting from static equilibrium of the lifted
weight and the sling tensions. Load out
forces are generated when the jacket is
loaded from the fabrication yard onto the
barge. Depends on friction co-efficient
 STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Accidental Load :
According to the DNV rules , accidental loads are loads, which may occur as a
result of accident or exceptional circumstances.
Examples of accidental loads are, collision with vessels, fire or explosion,
dropped objects, and unintended flooding of buoyancy tanks.
Special measures are normally taken to reduce the risk from accidental loads.
 STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Load Combinations :
The load combinations depend upon the design method used, i.e. whether limit
state or allowable stress design is employed.
The load combinations recommended for use with allowable stress procedures
are:
Normal operations
Dead loads plus operating environmental loads plus maximum live
loads . Dead loads plus operating environmental loads plus minimum
live loads .
Extreme operations
Dead loads plus extreme environmental loads plus maximum live
loads. Dead loads plus extreme environmental loads plus minimum
live loads
Environmental loads, should be combined in a manner consistent with their
joint probability of occurrence.
Earthquake loads, are to be imposed as a separate environmental load, i.e.,
not to be combined with waves, wind, etc.
 STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
ANALYSIS MODEL

The analytical models used in offshore

engineering are similar to other types of on
shore steel structures
The same model is used throughout the
analysis except supports locations.
Stick models are used extensively for
tubular structures (jackets, bridges, flare
booms) and lattice trusses (modules,
decks).
Each member is normally rigidly fixed at its
ends to other elements in the model.
In addition to its geometrical and material
properties, each member is characterized
by hydrodynamic coefficients, e.g. relating
to drag, inertia, and marine growth, to allow
wave forces to be automatically generated.
 STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
ANALYSIS MODEL
Integrated decks and hulls of floating platforms
involving large bulkheads are described by plate
elements.
Deck shall be able to resist cranes maximum
overturning moments coupled with corresponding
maximum thrust loads for at least 8 positions of the
crane boom around a full 360 path.
The structural analysis will be a static linear analysis
of the structure above the seabed combined with a
static non-linear analysis of the soil with the piles.
Transportation and installation of the structure may
require additional analyses
Detailed fatigue analysis should be performed to
assess cumulative fatigue damage
The offshore platform designs normally use pipe or
wide flange beams for all primary structural
members.
 Acceptance Criteria

1. The verification of an element consists of comparing its

characteristic resistance(s) to a design force or stress. It
includes:
a strength check, where the characteristic resistance is
related to the yield strength of the element,
a stability check for elements in compression related to
the buckling limit of the element.
An element is checked at typical sections (at least both
ends and mid span) against resistance and buckling.
Tubular joints are checked against punching. These
checks may indicate the need for local reinforcement of
the chord using larger thickness or internal ring-stiffeners.
Elements should also be verified against fatigue,
corrosion, temperature or durability wherever relevant.
 STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Design Conditions:
1. Operation
2. Survival
3. Transit.

The design criteria for strength should relate to both intact and damaged
conditions.

Damaged conditions to be considered may be like 1 bracing or connection

made ineffective, primary girder in deck made ineffective, heeled condition
due to loss of buoyancy etc.
 CODES

Offshore Standards (OS):

Provides technical requirements and acceptance criteria for general
application by the offshore industry eg.DNV-OS-C101

Recommended Practices(RP): Provides proven technology and sound

engineering practice as well as guidance for the higher level publications eg.
API-RP-WSD

BS 6235: Code of practice for fixed offshore structures.

British Standards Institution 1982.
Mainly for the British offshore sector.
 REFERENCES

W.J. Graff: Introduction to offshore structures.

Gulf Publishing Company, Houston 1981.
Good general introduction to offshore structures.

B.C. Gerwick: Construction of offshore structures.

John Wiley & Sons, New York 1986.
Up to date presentation of offshore design and construction.

Patel M H: Dynamics of offshore structures

Butterworth & Co., London.
Q&A
 MARINE
STRUCTURE
 Rubble Mound Structures

A wide variety of rubble mound structures is

built in the coastal zone.
This includes :
1. Revetments and seawalls (along the shore)
2. Groins and jetties (perpendicular to the
shore)
3. Breakwaters (offshore and shore parallel)
 Revetments

A facing of stone, concrete, etc., to protect

an embankment, or shore structure,
against erosion by wave action or currents.
Vertical structures are classified as either
seawalls or bulkheads, according to their
function, while protective materials laid
on slopes are called revetments.
 Bulkheads
Bulkheads means an upright structure or partition
built parallel or nearly parallel to the shoreline,
primarily to:-
retain or prevent land from sliding and
protect upland from beach erosion and damage from
wave action.
A bulkhead is generally of lighter construction than
seawall.
Bulkheads may either cantilevered or anchored (like
sheet piling) or gravity structures (such as rock-filled
timber cribs)
 Seawalls

Seawall means an upright structure

separating land and water areas,
designed to prevent erosion and other
damage to upland areas due to wave
action.
A seawall is generally of heavier or more
massive construction than a bulkhead.
 Quaywalls
QUAY (pronounced KEY) a stretch of paved bank, or a
solid artificial landing place parallel to the navigable
waterway, for use in loading and unloading vessels.
A quaywall is a gravity wall structure having the dual
function of providing shore protection and a berthing face
for ships.
Its function is similar to a bulkhead but should be chosen
when overall height requirements or wave environment
severity exceed the practical capabilities of typical
bulkhead constructions. (they do not necessary retain a
soil backfill)
 GROINS / GROYNE
A groyne is an active structure extending from shore into
sea, most often perpendicularly or slightly obliquely to the
shoreline.
Adequate supply of sediment and existence of
satisfactorily intensive longshore sediment transport are
the sine qua non conditions of groynes efficiency.
Catching and trapping of a part of sediment moving in a
surf zone (mainly in a longshore direction), as well as
reduction of the sediment amount transported seawards,
are the principle functions of the groyne.
 GROINS / GROYNE
A groyne (groin in the United States) is a rigid hydraulic structure built
from an ocean shore (in coastal engineering) or from a bank (in rivers)
that interrupts water flow and limits the movement of sediment.
In the ocean, groynes create beaches, or avoid having them washed
away by longshore drift.
In a river, groynes prevent erosion and ice-jamming, which in turn aids
navigation. Ocean groynes run generally perpendicular to the shore,
extending from the upper foreshore or beach into the water.
All of a groyne may be under water, in which case it is a submerged
groyne. The areas between groups of groynes are groyne fields.
Groynes are generally made of wood, concrete, or rock piles, and
placed in groups. They are often used in tandem with seawalls.
Groynes, however, may cause a shoreline to be perceived as
unnatural.
 Types of groynes

1. Wooden groynes
2. Steel groynes
3. Groynes of concrete elements
4. Rubble-mound and sand-filled bag groynes
Wooden groynes
Cresbeach-groyne
GROYNES in the Dutch Rhine
Groynes of concrete elements
 BREAKWATERS
1. Breakwaters aim to protect a coast or activities along
the coastline (e.g. ports, ship wharf) from wave action.
2. The variable parameters are outlined in the following:
a) Emerged, submerged or floating
b) Distance from shoreline and location relative to the surf
zone
c) Length and orientation
d) Single or segmented
e) Special shapes
3. There are further descriptions in the article Detached
breakwaters for combinations of all these parameters.
4. A shoreline management breakwater serves two purposes:
a) To provide shelter from the waves
b) Through this shelter, to manipulate the littoral transport
conditions and thereby to trap some sand
http://www.coastalwiki.org/coastalwiki/Application_of_breakwaters
Q&A
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YOU