Air conditioning systems

Based on the fluid media used in thermal

distribution system.
All air systems
All water systems
Air is used as the media transporting
energy from conditioned space to a/c plant.
Air is processed at A/C plant and is
conveyed through the ducts using blowers
and fans to the conditioned space.
This air extracts the required amount of
heat from/to the conditioned space and is
sent back to the A/C plant for further
-reprocessing
All water system- 2 pipe system
 Fluid used in thermal distribution system is water.
Water transports energy between conditioned
space and the plant.
Cold water is circulated when cooling is required.
Hot water is circulated when heating is required.
Provision must be there for supplying required
amount of treated outdoor air to the a/c space
since only water is circulated.
Depending of no: of pipes used
Double pipe & four pipe system
2 pipe system is used either for heating /cooling
application only and cant be used for
simultaneous heating/cooling.
 All Air Systems
Advantages:
Greatest potential for energy conservation
by utilizing outdoor air.
Able to provide good room air distribution
under all conditions of load.
By using high quality controls, temperature
and relative humidity can be well
maintained.
Disadvantages:
Occupy more space and reduce available
floor space in the building.
 All Water system
Advantages:
Thermal distribution system requires less
space compared to all air systems.
Individual room control is possible.
Disadvantages:
Requires high maintenance compared to
all air systems
Draining of condensate water can be
messy and also may create health problems
if water stagnates in the drain tray.
Control of humidity, particularly during
summer is very difficult.
 Psychrometry Properties
Dry bulb temperature (DBT): Temperature of
the moist air as measured by a standard
thermometer.
Saturated vapour pressure: saturated partial
pressure of water vapour at DBT.
Relative humidity: normally expressed as
percentage.
Humidity Ratio: mass of water associated with
each kg of dry air.
Enthalpy: Sum of enthalpy of dry air and
enthalpy of water vapour.
Specific volume: no: of cubic metres of moist
air per kilogram of dry air.
Psychrometric chart
 Gives graphical representation of
important properties of moist air.
DBT, WBT, Moisture content, RH,
specific enthalpy, and specific volume.
If any 2 properties are known, then the
other 4 can be found from the chart.
Used extensively air-conditioning
applications.
X axis give DBT whereas Y axis gives
humidity ratio in gram of water vapour
per kg of dry air.
 Psychrometric processes
Sensible heating/cooling : Refers to
heating/cooling without phase change. (without
increase/decrease of moisture content).
Cooling with dehumidification: reducing of
air temperature along with removal of water
vapour air.
Humidification: Addition of moisture to air.
Evaporative cooling: Needed in hot/dry
climates
It has an arrangement of spraying liquid water
in to air .due to less humidity of air, some
amount of water will evaporate and
consequently temperature will reduce.
 Introduction to Automobiles
It is a self propelled vehicle used for
transportation of passengers and goods
upon the ground.
Types of engines used in automobiles:
1. According to type of fuel
1. Petrol engines
2. Diesel engines
3. Gas engines
2. According to the method of igniting the
fuel
1. Spark ignition engines.
2. Compression ignition engines.
 3. According to no: of strokes/cycle

Four stroke cycle engines

Cycle is completed in four strokes of the piston
Two stroke engines
Cycle is completed in 2 strokes of the piston.
4. According to the cycle of operation
Otto cycle engines
Diesel cycle engines
Dual combustion cycle engines
5. According to the speed of engines
Slow speed/medium speed/high speed
engines (up to 350 rpm/350-1000/above
1000 rpm)
6. According to the cooling system
Air-cooled engines Uses circulation of air
Water cooled engines Water circulation to hot
engine parts
Evaporative cooled engines Evaporation of liquid
like propylene glycol is used for cooling.
7. According to the method of fuel supply system
Carburettor engines uses carburettor for supplying
air-fuel mixture to the cylinder
Air-Injection Engines Delivers fuel at high pressure
to cylinder using compressed air.
Air less or solid injection engines Delivers fuel at
high pressures to the cylinder using mechanical
pumps.
8. According to the number of cylinders
Single cylinder engines: Consists of only ONE
cylinder
Multi cylinder engines: Consists of multiple
cylinders.
9. According to the arrangement of cylinders:
Vertical engines Axis of cylinder is vertical.
Horizontal engines Axis of cylinder is
horizontal
Radial engines Radially placed around a
common crankshaft
V type multi-cylinder engines: Two cylinders
are placed forming a V-shape.
10. According to the Valve mechanism:
Overhead valve engines: Valve is place
at the top of the cylinder
Side valve engines: Valve is placed at
the side of the cylinder.
Rotary valve engines: Valves are
opened and closed by a rotating
member.
 Types of Automobiles
1. Classification based on Purpose
a. Passenger vehicle : Which carries
passengers : Car, Jeep, Bus, auto rickshaw
b. Good vehicle: Which carries
materials/goods.
2. Capacity:
c. Light motor vehicle: able to carry light
things and are also less in size and weight.
d. Heavy motor vehicle: Can carry very
heavy materials and posses large mass
and gross vehicle weight exceeds 12000
kg. Eg: bus, Lorry etc..
3. According to the fuel used:
Petrol vehicles : Car, Jeep, Motorcycle, Scooter
Diesel Vehicles : Car, Jeep, Truck, bus, Tractor
etc.
Electric vehicle: Electric Cars, Electric buses
Gas Vehicles: CNG vehicles.
4. Based on type of transmission:
Automatic transmission vehicles: Vehicles
capable of changing gear automatically while
moving.
Manual gear changing vehicles
Semi-automatic transmission : allows manual
gear changes and uses a clutch but facilitates
the gear changes without a clutch pedal.
5. Drive of the vehicle:
Rear wheel drive: Rear wheel are driven
by the engines.
Front wheel drive: Front wheels are driven
by the engine.
All wheel drive: All the wheels are driven
by the engine.
Layout of an automobile
 Chassis- Part of the body which
supports its body, engine and
transmission system.
Transmission system: consists of clutch,
gear box, propeller shaft, axle and
differential.
It transmits power from the engine to
the wheels.
Clutch is used to couple/decouple the
engine and transmission.
Gear box contain gearing arrangement
to get different speeds. Used to get
more than one speed ratios.
 Propeller shaft is a long shaft used to connect
the output shaft of the gear box to the rear axle.
Differential has three functions
1. Transfer power from propeller shaft to the wheels.
2. Allow wheels to rotate at different speeds while
turning.
3. To turn the direction of drive through 90 0 to the
rear wheels
. The steering wheel is mechanically linked to
the wheels to provide the steering control.
. Brakes: They are attached to the four wheels
and are of 2 types: 1. Drum brakes 2. Disc brakes
Suspension system: For preventing the
transmission of shock from uneven road surfaces to
the vehicle and to support the vehicle on the axle.
 Various systems in IC engines
The components related and needed for a
particular function of the IC engine are
grouped together and is called a system
Various systems are:
Air intake system
Exhaust system, fuel system
Ignition system
Lubrication system
Cooling system
Engine starting system
 Air Intake system
Purpose is to supply clean air to the engine.
An air filter is fitted to remove dust from air
before supplying to the engine.
In SI engine, intake system consists of inlet
manifold, a throttle, intake valves and a
carburettor to add fuel.
Carburettor is a device which atomizes the fuel
an mixed with air and is carried to engine cylinder
through inlet manifold.
In CI engine, air intake is uncontrolled with a
very little restriction to the flow of air. Where the
air intake is directly connected to inlet manifold.
A turbocharger in CI engines enhances the air
intake even more.
 Exhaust system

After completion of combustion process, the

exhaust gases have to be removed from the
engine cylinder to admit fresh fuel air charge of
the next cycle.
Exhaust gases passes through the exhaust
valves and pass through exhaust manifold.
From exhaust manifold, gases pass through the
emission control system which may contain
thermal converters and a muffler, after which gas
 Fuel system in IC engines
Fuels are to be pressurized before
injecting in to the cylinder.

Fuel is supplied using fuel pump.

Carburettor is a device used for atomizing
fuel, vaporizing it and mixing it with air in
correct proportion to produce
homogeneous mixture to suit changing
condition of the engine.
 Fuel Pump
Air injection are divided in to two:
Air injection system and solid injection system
Fuel is pumped along with the air to the cylinder
in air injection.
Whereas in solid injection, fuel is raised to
extreme pressures by mechanical pumps and
deliver it to combustion chambers using fuel
injectors without compressed air.
Solid injection consists of pressurizing unit and
injector(atomizing unit).
Fuel is supplied to the cylinder either by gravity
or using fuel pump.
 Engine starting system
Consists of electric starter motor, and starter
solenoid.
Powerful Starter motor spins the engine a few
revolutions when ignition key is turned on, so that
combustion process can start.
It requires a powerful motor to spin a cold engine
and to overcome friction, open and close valves
with the cam shaft and all other things directly
attached to the engine.
Hundreds of amperes of electricity flows to the
motor as a large amount of energy is needed for
this.
Solenoid switch controls this much large amount of
current.
 Ignition system of IC engine
In petrol engines, it requires a spark plug to
produce spark to initiate combustion.
A high electric discharge is produced between 2
electrodes at the spark plug., by the ignition
system.
Voltage required to produce this high discharge is
10000-20000 V.
In battery ignition systems, a battery is the source of
energy.
In magneto ignition system, energy source is a set of
rotating magnets in fixed coils or rotating coils in fixed
magnets.
The current produced by the magnets flow to the coils.
This system is mainly used in 2 wheelers, kick start
engines
 Lubrication system in IC engine
If moving parts are allowed to rub each
other, it will cause friction and heat,
resulting in excess wear.
This can be reduced by placing a film of
lubricating oil between the moving parts so
that they ride on the oil film.
Power required to overcome friction will also
be reduced and results in reduced wear and
tear.
Main parts to be lubricated in an IC engine
are crankshaft, bearing, crank pin, piston,
cylinder walls, cams, valve stems, gears etc.
 Cooling system in IC engine
Due to combustion of fuel inside the cylinder, intense
heat is generated.
Only 30% of heat is converted in to work while,
remaining 40% is carried away by the exhaust gases
to the atmosphere.
The remaining 30% is left unattended will be absorbed
by the engine cylinder, piston and cylinder valves etc.
Overheating of the engine components may cause
thermal stresses, seizure of piston, decomposition of
lube oil, reduced volumetric efficiency etc.
An efficient cooling system in an engine is capable of
removing 30% of the heat generated in the
combustion chamber.
Capable of removing heat at a faster rate when engine
is hot.
 In Air-cooling system, the heat is dissipated
directly in to the atmosphere directly by
conduction through the cylinder walls.
It works by making the object to be cooled to
have a larger surface area or increased flow of
air over its surface or both.
In water cooling system, water is circulated
through water jackets around each of the
combustion chambers.
The water is kept continuously by a pump which
is driven by a v belt from the pulley on the
engine crank shaft.
After passing through the engine cylinder, the
water is passed through the radiator. In the
radiator, the water is cooled by air drawn
through the radiator by a fan.
 Fundamentals of Aerodynamics
Aerodynamics is concerned with motion of
air and bodies moving through air.
The forces acting on bodies moving through
air are termed as aerodynamic forces.
By Archimedes principle, an aircraft will be
buoyed up by a force equal to weight of the
air displaced by it.
The buoyancy force will act upwards
vertically.
The net-force W-Fb will be acting irrespective
of whether aircraft is in rest or in motion.
 Aircraft is flying in still air with a constant
velocity V.
Here the motion of air is solely due to the
motion of air craft.
Motion of aircraft is maintained by a force T
exerted by the engines
By Newtons first law of motion, the resultant
force acting on the aircraft must be zero,
when it is at steady flight.
There must be an additional force Fad such
that vectorial sum of forces acting on the
aircraft is zero.
T+(W-Fb) + Fad = 0
Fad is called aerodynamic force.
 Lift and drag
Resolution of aerodynamic force in to two.
At right angles to V and opposite to V
The force component normal to V is called
Lift, L and opposite to V is called drag, D
If is the angle between L and D
L = Fad x cos
D = Fad x sin
tan = D/L
is the guide angle.
 Lift is the component of aerodynamic
force perpendicular to direction of
motion. (opposite to downward force of
weight).
Drag is the component of force opposite
to the direction of motion
Drag opposes thrust and acts rearward
parallel to the relative wind.
Thrust opposes or overcomes the force
of drag.
 Aircraft engines
Modern aircraft engine have the ability to
actuate massive stream and thus to
produce high thrust.
Turbojet engine.
Turboprop engine.
Turbofan engine.
Ramjet engine.
 Module V- Theory of Mechanisms & Machines
Used to understand the relationships between
geometry and motion of parts of machine or
mechanism and forces which produce these motion.
Essential for the design of a machine.
Kinematics: It is the branch which deals with
geometric relationships and relative motion
between parts like position, displacement, rotation
speed etc..
Dynamics: Which deals with study of forces acting
on various parts of machine.
Forces can be either static or dynamic due to inertia
of the parts of the machine.
Static deals with stationary systems
Dynamics deals with systems that change with time.
 Analysis and synthesis
Synthesis (Design) is the process of prescribing
the sizes, shapes, material compositions, and
arrangement of parts so that the resulting
machine will perform the prescribed task.
Application of largest collection of scientific
methods falls under analysis.
Evaluation and rating of things already
conceived.
A machine is a combination of resistant bodies
so arranged that by their means the mechanical
forces of nature can be compelled to do the
work accompanied by certain determinate
motions
 A mechanism is defined as an assemblage of
resistant bodies connected by movable joints
to form a closed kinematic chain with one link
fixed and having purpose of transforming
motion.
A machine is an arrangement for doing
work/applying power where as mechanism is
transmitting power to achieve the desired
motion.
The connection between links of the
mechanism is called a pair (kinematic pair).
The purpose of a link is to hold a constant
spatial relationship between elements of its
pairs.
Structure is an assemblage of no: of resistant
 When several links are movable connected
together by joints they are said to form a
kinematic chain.
Links containing only 2 pairs of element
connections are called binary joints.
Recognizing the type of relative motion
and assigning some variable parameters
for measuring or calculating motion are
called degree of freedom.
Lower pairs are having surface contact
between the pair elements whereas higher
pairs have point contact between the
elemental surfaces.
 Planar, Spherical & Spatial mechanisms
A planar mechanism is one in which all particles
describe plane curves in space and all these
curves lie in parallel planes.
Loci of all points are plane curves parallel to a
common plane.
The motion transformation of any such
mechanism is called coplanar.
Slider crank mechanism, four bar mechanism are
examples of planar mechanisms.
Planar mechanisms using only lower pairs are
called planar linkages.
It requires that all the axes of revolutionary and
prismatic pairs should be normal to he plane of
motion.
 Spherical mechanism
Is one in which all the moving links perform
concentric spherical motions about a common
stationary point called spherical center.
Motion of all particles can be described by
their radial projections on the surface of a
sphere with properly chosen center.
Hooks universal joint is the most familiar
example of spherical mechanism.
They are constituted of revolutionary pairs.
 Spatial mechanism &Mobility
A rigid body is said to undergo spatial motion if its
motion is not planar or spherical.
Spatial mechanisms include no restrictions on the
relative motions of the particles.
The motion transformation is not necessarily coplanar
nor it must be concentric.
Have particles with loci of double curvature.
Screw pair is an example for spatial mechanism
Mobility is the no: of degrees of freedom of a
mechanism.
The number of input parameters which must be
independently controlled in order to bring the device
in to a particular position.
Calculation of mobility of a mechanism directly from
the count of no: of links and the no: and types of
joints.
 For a n-link planar mechanism, has 3 x (n-1)
degrees of freedom before any joints are
connected.
When we use J1 to denote the no: of single DOF
pairs and J2 to represent no: of 2 DOF pairs,
resulting mobility m of a planar n-link mechanism
is given by the following:
m = 3 x (n-1) - 2J1 J2 (Kutzbach criterion)
 Inversion of a Mechanism
Method of obtaining different mechanism by fixing
up different links is called inversion of mechanism.
Relative motions are not changed in inversion but
the absolute motion (one w.r.to Fixed link).
Part of the mechanism which initially moves w.r.to
the frame is called driver whereas part to which
the motion is transmitted is called follower.
Grashoffs law for 4 bar linkage states that the
sum of the shortest and longest linkages cannot
be greater than the remaining 2 link lengths, if
there is to be continuous relative motion between
these two.
In the following figure the following equation
applies:
s+l = p+q
 Mechanical advantage of a linkage is the ration of
the output torque exerted by the driven link to
the necessary input torque required at the driver.
(Ratio of load to effort)

Ideal mechanical advantage is M.A =

FB /FA = vA /vB
 Mechanical Design &Types
Formulate a plan for the satisfaction of a specific
need or a problem is done in design.
Design is an innovative, highly iterative decision
making process.
Adaptive design: Designers work is concerned
with adaptation of existing designs. Requires no
special skill/knowledge.
Development design: needs considerable
scientific training and design ability in order to
modify the existing designs into a new idea by
adopting new material or different method of
manufacture.
New Design: this type of design need lot of
research, technical ability and creative thinking.
 Rational design : This types of design depends
upon mathematical formulae of principle of
mechanics.
Empirical Design: This type of design depends
upon empirical formula based on practice & past
experience.
Industrial Design: Depends upon the production
aspects to manufacture any machine component in
the industry.
Optimum design: Best design for the given
objective function under specified constraints.
System design: Design of any complex mechanical
system like a motor car.
Element design: Design of any element of the
mechanical system like piston, crankshaft,
connecting rod etc.
Design process:
1. Recognition of need
2. Definition of problem
3. Synthesis
4. Analysis and optimization
5. Evaluation
6. Presentation
 Types of Loads
Static load : is a stationary force, moment or
torque acting on the member.
Dynamic load: which varies in magnitude or
in direction or in both with respect to time.
Cyclic load: Which when applied, varies in
magnitude in a repetitive cyclic manner, either
completely reversing itself from tension to
compression or oscillating about some mean value.
Eg: weights of machinery, load acting on pressure
vessel etc.
Impact load: Is a load which is applied suddenly in
to a member usually at a high velocity and at a
constant magnitude. Punch press, drop forge are
examples of machines subjected to impact loads.
Factor of safety:
It is the ratio of maximum load carrying
capability of the component to the design
loading.
Purpose is to safeguard against unexpectedly
high loads, material defects and process defects.
FOS = Failure Load/working Load
Working load is the load used in the design to
determine the dimensions of the component.
Failure load is the load at which the failure of the
material occurs.
Low FOS for high quality and consistent
materials, quality manufacturing and inspection
methods.
 Material strength basis

Nature of load basis: Static, impact or cyclic

loading
Possible misuse: Designer must consider any
possible foreseeable use and misuse of the
component.
Complexity of stress analysis: Actual stress in
not known.
Environment: Temperature, Weather, radiation,
chemicals
Standards & Codes:
A standard is a set of specifications for parts,
materials or processes intended to achieve
uniformity, efficiency, and a specified quality.
Limit multitude of variations that can arise
from the arbitrary creation of parts.
A code is a set of specifications for the
analysis, design, manufacture and
construction of something.
The purpose of code is to achieve a specified
degree of safety, efficiency and performance
or quality.
Absolute safety is impossible to obtain in
practice.
Economics of Design:
Observe that nothing can be said in an absolute
sense concerning costs.
Increasing cost of materials and labour.
Cost of processing materials trend to decrease
because of automated machines/tools.
Increased cost based on location. (Labour, tax
variations etc.).
Reliability:
Primary focus is on Failures and their prevention.
It is the probability that a unit performs its
intended function adequately for a given period
of time under stated operating conditions o
environment.
 Reliability R = 1 Pf
where Pf is the probability of failure is the
number of instances of failure per total
number of possible instances.
0<R<1
R = 0.9, means there is 90% chance that the
part will do intended function without failure.
If a mechanical system fails when any one
component fails, then the system is said to be
a series system.
If reliability of a component is i is Ri in a series
system of n components, then the reliability of
the system is expressed as
R = Ri
 Module VI- Engineering Materials
For an engineer materials means structural
material that is used to produce various products.
Various kinds of materials used for industry,
housing, agriculture, transportation, etc. To meet
the plant requirement.
An appropriate selection of material adds to
economy, working and life of the final part of the
component.
The selection of a material for a process depends
on;
Operating parameters.
Manufacturing processes.
Functional requirements.
Cost considerations are known.
 Properties of Engg. /Materials
Physical properties: describes the state of the
material, which is observable or measurable.
Eg: Colour, texture, density, MP, BP etc.
Chemical properties: chemical properties are the
measure of reactivity of a material in the presence of
another substance or environment which imposes in
the material composition.
Eg: Corrosion rate, oxidation rate,
Mechanical properties:
Tensile strength: this enables the material to resist the
application of a tensile force. the internal structure of the
material provides the internal resistance.
Hardness: Degree of resistance to indentation , scratching,
abrasion and wear.
Ductility : Property of a metal by virtue of which it can be
drawn in to wires/elongated before rupture take place.
 Impact strength: energy required per unit c/s area
to fracture a specimen. response to shock loading.
Wear resistance: Ability of a material to resist
friction wear under particular conditions.(Maintain its
physical dimensions, when sliding or rolling contact
with a second member.
Corrosion resistance: those metals and alloys
which can withstand the corrosive action of medium.
Density: important factor of a material where weight
and mass are critical parameters.
Thermal properties: which are functions of
temperature, plays a vital role in the selection of
material for engg. applications
Eg: Thermal conductivity, specific heat, latent heat.
 Classification of engg. materials
Metals & Alloys:
Metals are good electrical and thermal conductors.
At ordinary temperature, metals re usually solid.
To some extent metals are ductile.
Most of the metals form alloys.
May be magnetic or non-magnetic.
2 or more metals are melted together to form a
new metal whose properties are quite different
from those of original metals, is called an alloy.
Eg: steel is an alloy of iron, carbon, and other
alloying elements.
Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc.
 Classification of engg. Materials ..(Contd.)
Ferrous metals:
Iron is the principal constituent and contains
significant amount of non-ferrous metals.
On the basis of carbon content, they are
classified as Steel and iron.
% of carbon in steel is up to 2.14.
% of carbon in iron is above 2.14.
Cast irons are manufactured by casting
technique owing to the brittle nature due to the
presence of iron carbide.
Cast irons serve mostly structural components
Lathe bed, sliding guides in machinery,
automobile motor casings etc.
Classification of engg. Materials..(Contd.)
Plain carbon steels is a metal alloy, where
there elements are present in quantities too
small to affect the properties
Mild steel - % of carbon is from 0.15-0.25
Moderately strong and have good weldability
Gears, valves, boiler plats etc.
Medium carbon steel
carbon % from 0.3 -0.6%
High strength and less weldability.
High carbon steels
Carbon % from 0.65-1.5
Getting harder and tougher by heat treatment.
Poor weldability.
Alloy steel:
Class of steel in which one or more elements
other than carbon are intentionally added to
impart some physical properties.
Common elements added are molybdenum,
manganese, nickel, silicon, boron, chromium
and vanadium etc.
Low alloy steels are category of ferrous
materials exhibiting superior mechanical
properties than plain carbon steels.
Total alloy content from 2.07 up to levels just
below that of SS.
Used for surgical instruments, ball bearing etc.
Non-Ferrous Metals:
These substances are composed of metals
other than iron.
Aluminium, tin, zinc, copper, nickel etc.
Ceramics:
These are non metallic solids made of inorganic
compounds such as oxides, nitrides, borides
and carbides.
They are fabricated by first shaping the powder
with or without application of pressure in to a
compact which is subsequently subjected to
high temperature treatment called sintering.
Used in the manufacture of porcelain, pottery,
cement etc.
Organic materials:
These materials originate from plants and animals.
Consists of carbon chemically combined with
hydrogen oxygen and other non-metallic
substances.
Common organic materials are plastics and
synthetic rubbers.
Formed by polymerization.
Have low specific gravity and good strength.
Thermosetting plastics are formed in to shape
under heat and pressure which results in a
permanently hard product.
Thermoplastics are those plastics which remain soft
at elevated temperature and become hard on
cooling.
Composites:
A composite material is defined as a material which is
composed of 2 or more materials at a microscopic
scale.
The constituent materials have different properties.
They can be natural or artificial made materials
Naturally occurring composites are wood, granite etc.
Semiconductors:
They are solid materials either non-metallic or
compounds which allow electrons to pass through
them so that they conduct electricity in much the
same way as metals.
They occupy an intermediate position between
conductor and insulator.
They usually have high resistivity, hardness and
brittileness.
Advanced materials:
Advanced materials refer to all new materials
and their development to the existing
materials to obtain superior, unique, and high
performance in one or more properties.
Amorphous and metallic glasses, nano
materials and nano composites, bio materials,
and smart or so called intelligent materials are
some type of advanced materials.
Nano structured materials:
Are those materials whose structural elements
(clusters, crystallites or molecules have
dimensions in the range of 1-100 nm)
Nano particles, nano crystals etc are examples.