Mid Term Review SP2017

What Can We Speculate About
This Insulator?
It can handle steady state and transient voltages
The shape of the insulator was designed to maximize
surface area
Voltage breakdown through air across the insulator
unlikely
Clearance Distance through Air Considers Dielectric
Strength of Air
Voltage breakdown across the surface of the insulator
unlikely
Creepage Distance Across Insulator Greater Than or Equal
to Air Distance
Tracking of Voltage Across Insulator Considered
There are safety factors built into this design, based on
nominal voltage, but considering transient voltages
10, 15, 20 X nominal voltage (????)
Somebody tested it
Nominal Voltages
Nominal voltage denotes the reported voltage in
use in the majority of residential and commercial
establishments in the country or city.
Alternating current (AC) is normally distributed either
through a 3-phase wye (or star) or delta
(triangle) 4-wire secondary power distribution
system.
In the wye or star distribution systems, the nominal
voltage examples are 120/208V (e.g., United States
and Canada), 127/227 V (e.g., Mexico), 220/380V
(e.g., South Korea), and 230/400 V (e.g. Europe).
The higher voltage is 1.732 (3) times the lower
voltage.
3-Phase/4-Wire Wye (Star) Circuit
The neutral conductor carries a

current equal to any unbalanced
current in the system, or the
difference between the phase
conductor currents.
Region Nominal Phase-to- Nominal Phase-to-

Neutral Voltage Phase Voltage
VAN, VBN, VCN VAB, VBC, VAC
Europe 230 V 400 V
North America 120 V 208 V

3-Phase/3-Wire Delta Distribution
With Regional Voltages
In some commercial and industrial

installations, one of the windings of a
three-phase delta distribution system
is center-tapped and earthed,
creating 120-V or 230 V to earth
circuits
Region Nominal Phase-to-Phase Voltage

VAB, VBC, VAC
Europe 400 V
North America 240V

120/240 V ac, Single Phase, Three-
Wire Systems
This system is prevalent in

North America for residential
and commercial locations, as
well in regions of the world
that were electrified by North
American companies or
institutions.
Power used by the consumer
is derived from a single-phase,
240 V ac secondary of a
transformer that is center-
tapped and grounded.
The voltage across the
transformer secondary is 240
Region Nominal Line-to- Nominal Line-to-Line
V ac, whereas the voltage Neutral Voltage Voltage
between the end points and VAN, VBN VAB
the center point (neutral) is
120 V ac
North America 120 V 240 V
The neutral conductor carries
a current equal to the
difference between the
current on Phase A and the
current in Phase B.
120/240 V ac, Single Phase, Three-

Wire Systems
IT Power Distribution Systems
IT power distribution
systems are isolated from
earth, except that one point
may be connected to earth
through an impedance or a
voltage limiter. The parts of
the equipment required to
be earthed are connected
to earth electrodes at the
users premises.
Annex V of IEC 60950-1

notes that IT power
systems are common in
parts of Norway and France.
In other countries, IT power

systems are generally not Three Phase Wye (Star), Four Wire
permitted except in special IT power distribution system IT
industrial application where
qualified supervision is
always present, and a
current sensor and
indicator notifies the
supervision of the presence
of an earth fault.
IT power systems are important for industrial applications,
where opening overcurrent protection and interrupting power
due to a ground/earth fault could create a bigger hazard than
the fault itself
Examples:
Medical facilities
Electrical life-support systems, operating rooms, etc.
Industrial Cranes
Dropping the load more unsafe than ground/earth faults
Realize that not referencing the power

system to ground is one way to control
transient currents, such as ground faults
or overloads
Neutral Current
3 Realize that you can monitor neutral currents for

sudden transient activities
Neutral Conductor Carries the Unbalanced Current
Kirchoffs Current Law

IA + IB + Ic +IN =0
Balanced 3-phase:
Let IA= 1000 = 100 + j0
IB= 100= -50 + j86.60
Ic= 100= -50 - j86.60
0 + j0
IN=-(IA+IB+IC)= 0 A
Neutral Conductor Carries the Unbalanced Current
IA + IB + Ic +IN =0
Unbalanced 3-phase:
Let IA= 1200 = 120 + j0
IB= 8= -40 + j69.28
Ic= 100= -50 - j86.60
30 - j17.32
IN=-(IA+IB+IC)= -30+j17.32
=34.64 A
Neutral Conductor in 120/240 V AC, 3-Wire Secondary
IA + IB +IN =0
If you have a 16 A , 240 V load

(IAB), what is the neutral current?
IA= 16 A or 10 or
16 +j0
IB= -16 A or 1 or
-16 +j0
IN=-(IA+IB)= -(16-16) =0 A
IA + IB +IN =0
If you have a 16 A , 240 V load

(IAB), and a 10 A, 120 V load
(IAN)what is the neutral current?
IA= 16 A +10 A =26 A

IB= -16 A
IN=-(IA+IB)= -(26-16) =-10 A
or 10A away from neutral

IA + IB +IN =0
If you have a 10 A, 120 V load on

Line A to Neutral (IAN) and a 6 A,
120 V load on Line B to Neutral,
what is the neutral current?
IA= 10 A
IB= -6 A
IN=-(IA+IB)= -(10-6) =-4 A
or 4A away from neutral

Transients in Power
Systems: Chapter 2 and 3
Transient Basics
Transient basics
To better understand transient responses of power
circuits, we can view them in terms of the simple lumped
parameters R, L, and C.
Wiring and secondary loads have

R
resistance.
Transformers and lengths of
L
conductors have inductance.
Capacitance is from the windings of
transformers, dielectrics between
C
conductors, and physical capacitors
added to the circuits.
D. Gies | Transients and Surge Protection Considerations in Electrical Equipment Offense and
Defense|2013 ISPCE
RC, RL, LC Circuits
Under transient conditions, and especially under abnormal fault conditions,
the inductance and capacitance can react to a sudden change in current or
voltage, causing very large spikes in voltage or current.
This is more pronounced under unloaded conditions.
Capacitors, RC Inductors, RL LC, Natural Frequency, Surge Impedance
di
iC
dV V V0 e t RC V L
dt
i i0 e tR L f0
1 L
Z 0 ( )1 2
dt 2 ( LC )1 2 C
Defense|2013 ISPCE
Surge Impedance
C
I (t ) V ( )1 2 sin w0t V
L
From circling an LC loop, the above equation for current

is derived. So, since , you can see that the surge
impedance is:
= =
or
For mid-term, need to know surge impedance, but do not need to derive it
1
f0 Natural Frequency
2 ( LC )1 2
L
Z 0 ( )1 2 Surge Impedance
C
=
With regard to transient responses, the basics of the RLC equivalences
are:
The capacitor cannot accept an instantaneous change in voltage,
and the current is proportional to the change in voltage over the
change in time
The inductor cannot accept an instantaneous change in current,
and the voltage is proportional to the change in current
Together, the inductance and capacitance oscillate at the natural
frequency f0
Resistance has a dampening effect for the above.
If inductances are hit with a fast rise in current
The voltage across them swings very high.
If capacitances are hit with a fast rise in voltage
The current across them swings very high.
D. Gies | Transients and Surge Protection Considertions in Electrical Equipment Offense and
Defense|2013 ISPCE
Capacitor
Charging V V0 (1 e t RC )
Inductor
Charging
I I 0 (1 e tR L )
Laplace Transforms
Inductor impedance
Capacitor impedance
Resistance is
Quadratic Formula

Table of Laplace Transform
Pairs
1
3
3
For mid-term, you do not have to memorize Laplace transforms, except

remember that the Laplace transform of the impulse (e.g. a fast
transient voltage) in frequency domain is all-frequency white noise
An Abbreviated Table of Laplace Transform
Pairs
Impulse
Impulse
Step
Step
Ramp
Ramp
Exponential
Exponential
Sine
Sine
Cosine
Cosine
Damped
Damped Ramp
Ramp
Damped Sine
Damped Cosine
Significance of Laplace Transform Pairs
F(t) Type F(s) Example

(t) Impulse 1 Very short duration
voltage spike
u(t) Step Point where switch is

1 turned on or off to
energize or de-
s energize resistive DC
circuit
Ramp
1 Constant increase of
t
s2 DC voltage from 0 to V
at Exponential 1 Voltage decay in

e capacitor, current
sa decay in inductor
Sine w AC Source
sin wt
s 2 w2
Cosine
s AC Source
cos wt
s 2 w2
R L C
R L C
(a) (b)
Fig. 4.1. Parallel and Series RLC Circuits

2. Transient basics
RLC Damping
Parallel (a) and Series (b) RLC

Circuits.
As seen previously, the inductance L and

capacitance C will oscillate at the natural
frequency f0 without resistance R to dampen the
transient.
The characteristics
(1) (2)of series
(3) and parallel RLC
circuits can easily be determined by studying the
factor for parallel RLC circuits (1), for series RLC
circuits (2), and surge impedance Z0 (3)
D. Gies | Transients and Surge Protection Considerations Offense and Defense|2013 ISPCE
Chapter 4
for parallel RLC circuits

In either parallel or series RLC damping,
R plays dominant role.
2. Transient basics
RLC Damping
For value of >1/2, the circuit is
considered UNDER-DAMPED, and tends
to be ringing.
For values of =1/2, the circuit is
considered CRITICALLY DAMPED.
For values of < , the circuit is
considered OVER-DAMPED.
The generalized dampening
curves for parallel RLC
circuits with respect to
values of
. For series circuits,
substitute the factor for
[1]
RLC Damping

The peak of the undamped wave sets the vertical scale for the curves, and
knowing we have determined which curve represents our solution. Equation
4.3 .1 simplifies the obtaining of a time scale. An example will help to
clarify this procedure.
Figure 4.5 illustrates the problem discussed at the beginning of Section
4.2. In that section an expression was derived for the current in the inductor
when the switch S is closed. We will now make use of that analysis and the
dimensionless curves of Fig. 4.4 to obtain a numerical solution for the values
shown in Fig. 4.5.
The operational solution for IL was given in Eq. 4.2.5:
The structure of the transform tells us that our curves in Fig. 4.4 are
appropriate. The first step is to calculate the surge impedance of the circuit:
Next, obtain
For mid-term, study , , and determine if circuit is overdamped,

underdamped, or critically damped from R and Z 0
Abnormal Switching Transients
Current Suppression
Current carried by a power switch does not normally
cease when its contacts separate.
The current continues to flow through an arc until it
reaches its periodic zero
Sometimes the overzealous action of arc suppression
devices in the circuit brings the circuit to zero abruptly
and prematurely ahead of the normal zero
This phenomenon is called current chopping
And it is an example of current suppression
It can give rise to an abnormal voltage as a
consequence of the release of trapped magnetic
energy associated with the current.
It is often observed when the no-load or
magnetizing current of a transformer is being
switched.
Abnormal Switching Transients Current
Suppression
Current Suppression Circuit: The circuit breaker and an unloaded transformer (a) and the
effective equivalent circuit (b).
Suppose that in the current suppression circuit, at the time that the switch is opened on the
unloaded transformer, the instantaneous current is I0. The magnetic energy in the core of the
transformer is
Abnormal Switching Transients Current Suppression
Let us assume that I1% of normal full load current, and assume that L m is quite high
Lets assume that the current has no place to go, so the energy has to be diverted into the
capacitance, and the stored capacitive energy is:
Current cannot cease suddenly through an inductive circuit

Yet it has no complete path through the switch
It is therefore diverted into the system capacitance C on the transfer side of the switch.
This is primarily transformer winding capacitance, along with other capacitances in the
connections between the switch and the transformer.
When the current is diverted into the capacitance, the energy from the
magnetic field of the transformer is transferred into the electric field of the
capacitance. Voltage can be calculated if the capacitance and inductance
are known, using the equations below.
or
Consider a 1000-kVA, 13.8kV transformer of the kind

found in substations of industrial plants. Magnetizing
current is typically 1.5 A (3-phase). Also, the
impedance across the inductor is , so:
, where =2f, and f=60 Hz, so =377

, and .
So,
Effective capacitance can vary with the type of winding and the insulation,
whether oil, air, or other material, but would typically be in the range of
1000-7000pF.
If C=5000pF, then:
So, V=IZ0 in an LC circuit. If I=2.5A because of harmonic distortion:

52,915=132,288 V or 132.3 kV
So, the result is a transient voltage of 132.3kV on a 13.8 kV system, an

abnormal voltage of times the nominal voltage.
5.6 FERRORESONANCE
February 27, 2014

5. FERRORESONANCE
In the phenomenon of series resonance, a very high voltage can

appear across the elements of a series LC circuit when it is excited at
or near its natural frequency.
From the figure below, it is evident that the voltages V L and VC add to
give the applied voltage V.
But because the voltage across the inductor leads the current in
phase by 90, and the capacitor voltage lags the current by the
same amount, the phasor diagram appears as in (b)
It is seen that both VL and Vc can far exceed V[1]
What is Ferroresonance?
45
COPYRIGHT 2013 ALCATEL-LUCENT. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.
5. FERRORESONANCE
In the functioning of an electrical utility, such resonant conditions are

to be avoided, but they occur inadvertently on occasions. The
phenomenon is referred to as ferroresonance, since the inductor
involved is usually iron-cored, and often a transformer.[1]
This condition can occur when:
1. A three-phase transformer is switched on with no load; and
2. One or two phases are opened.
46

Voltage across the inductor is dependent upon the
frequency and the current through a function f(I)
f(I)
VL is plotted as a function of current in Fig. 5.25. The
voltage will lead the current by 90. Voltage across the
capacitor is given by VC=
Fig. 5.25 Voltage and current relationships in a
ferroresonant circuit. For Mid-Term, you do not have
to remember this
Total Voltage:
V=VL+VC= (5.6.3)
Or VL =V+
VL has a fixed constituent V and one proportional to I.
Eq. 5.6.3 is plotted in Fig. 5.25 as the inclined straight
line.
Resistance is always present in any practical reactor,

whether linear or non-linear. This has a limiting effect
on the reactor voltage on both instances.
Basic equation with resistance (Eq. 5.6.5):
V=1/2 or VL=2-(IR)2]1/2 +
(Not on mid-term)
In
Fig. 5.28 the first term (on right) of equation
5.6.5 is an ellipse. It is plotted for three different
values of R, first by itself, and then inclined in
combination with I/.
The voltage limiting effect of the resistance is quite

apparent as the value of R is increased and may
provide a form of protection.
(Not on Mid-Term)
5. FERRORESONANCE
The figure to the right shows a switch used to energize
and de-energize the primary of a transformer.
The switch is shown with only one pole closed.
This condition will prevail momentarily on closing as the
first pole completes its circuit, or on opening before the
last pole disconnects, but it could be sustained if one
pole would stick in the closed position.
Some circuits of this kind use a fuse in series with
the switch to interrupt fault currents.
The condition could also be sustained, therefore, if two of
the fuses had blown.
It might appear at first that with only one pole of the
switch closed, the transformer is not energized.
In a way this is true.
There nevertheless remains a path for current through
two of the phase windings and the cable capacitance.
It is this circuit that can produce resonance and impress
excessive voltages across the transformer and the cables
on un-energized phases.
It can, for instance, cause lightning arrestors connected
at the B and C bushings of the transformer to operate.[1]
51
5. FERRORESONANCE
OBSERVATIONS FROM INCIDENTS OF FERRORESONANCES
Roger Dugan (IEEE Fellow) says that the potential for ferroresonance has
caused nearly all utilities in the U.S. to apply grounded wye-wye transformers
at 25 and 35 kV classes.
Also, there may be a perception that ferroresonance cannot happen in 15 kV
class systems.
While it is less likely, it is still possible.[2]
Dugan, in analyzing examples of ferroresonance events, notes the following

common points:
The events were caused by opening one or two phases, either intentionally or accidentally
The basic situation is established by the commonplace underground distribution cable service drop
from an overhead line.
The cable system had either light load or no load.
The transformers were not permanently damaged.
Damage did occur to load side equipment.[2]
Dugans causes and recommendations will be on Mid-Term

Observations on Incidences of Ferroresonance
52
5. FERRORESONANCE
CORRECTIVE MEASURES
Corrective measures to prevent ferroresonance

include:
Using three-phase switchgear instead of fuses.

This is not economical in many cases.
Open or close all three cutouts as simultaneously as possible.
Ensure the transformer is loaded while being switched.
Eliminate fuses.
Rely on feeder breaker for fault interruption.
Various measures to prevent inadvertent fuse operation.[2]
Dugans causes and recommendations will be on Mid-Term

Corrective Measures
53
These sections do not have to be memorized for midterm
From Dugan:
SHOPPING MALL INCIDENT
Many utilities first encountered instances of ferroresonance
when they began to build 34.5 kV underground distribution
systems. They had built 15 kV underground systems for years
without having a known problem. When the same designs
were attempted at the higher voltage levels, problems were
soon encountered. One incident containing several interesting
elements involved a shopping mall that suffered some
damage as a result.
Utility personnel were called to the scene in response to a
complaint about a "power surge" and a noisy transformer.
They were immediately drawn to a padmounted service
transformer that was making loud, irregular growling noises.
They also observed a spot on the top of the tank where the
paint had bubbled and charred. This was presumably caused
by the magnetic flux heating the tank as the core alternately
saturated during ferroresonance. However, the transformer
was tested and found not harmed internally. It was eventually
returned to service.
The root cause was an automobile accident that had resulted
in an open conductor fault on the overhead line tap just upline
from the cable drop to the shopping mall (refer to Figure 1).
The line had separated and fallen in such a way that there was
not a short circuit fault. This yielded the traditional circuit
configuration for ferroresonance, which continued for at least
30 minutes before crews arrived. Most of the 3-phase load in
the mall tripped off line due to the low or fluctuating voltage.
This only made matters worse for the loads that remained
connected because there was insufficient load to damp out the
ferroresonance. The weakest link in the chain then were the
surge suppressors (usually simple MOV arresters) on the low
voltage system in the mall. Failures were reported in cash
registers and computer equipment.
The fused cutouts on the UD cable drop were opened,
removing the transformer from service. Then the overhead
line was repaired and the transformer tested. It was
subsequently placed back into service. The disposition of the
These
failedsections do not haveisto
load equipment beknown.
not memorized for midterm
SINGLE-PHASING DISTRIBUTED GENERATION
Distribution generation (DG) protection requirements are
creating some interesting protection conflicts. Most utilities
require DG above a certain size to have a separate
service transformer and these are frequently served
underground as shown in Figure 2. Many commercial
buildings are served with a similar arrangement. The
stage is thus set for a serious case of ferroresonance
should one of the fuses blow when there is no permanent
fault in the cable. This can occur due to an animal
climbing the pole or simply a fuse element failure.
DG is required to disconnect immediately after detecting a
problemThesewith thedoutility
sections system.
not have If the problem
to be memorized is an open
for midterm
riser pole fuse, the transformer could very well go into
ferroresonance since there is no load to damp it out. Only
the generator is connected and its breaker is open. It
could remain in ferroresonance for quite some time before
it is reported depending on how closely the site is
The solution is to have three-phase switchgear on the primary side of the
transformer. This is not a problem for larger DG installations. However, it is
prohibitively expensive for small generators.
In general, I advise against line fuses in series with DG. This is not economically
avoidable in some cases. How the rules for this evolve with DG advocates
increasing the pressure to apply DG to distribution systems will be interesting.
There have been a number of incidents nearly identical to this with large
commercial building. It is common for hospitals, banks, and other commercial
buildings to have backup power installed. It is also common for such installations
to be fed underground with a cable drop of 1000 feet, or so. The standard
protection is a set of three fused cutouts on the riser pole. Sometimes the
implementation is such that as soon as a problem with the utility service is
detected, nearly all the load is transferred to backup power. This leaves the service
transformer energized and isolated without load to damp ferroresonance. Thus,
any loads that remain connected are subject to excessive duty. Low-voltage surge
suppressors commonly succumb to this duty. Also, UPS systems that monitor the
fluctuating voltage may cycle on an off repeatedly. This is not necessarily
damaging, but can disrupt IT operations.
Again, the solution is to use three-phase switchgear such as reclosers or
sectionalizers at the riser pole. Alternatively, the fused cutouts may be replaced
with solid blades, which will cause the feeder breaker or recloser to operate to clear
faults. This will be an inconvenience to other customers
DELTA-CONNECTED PADMOUNTS ON 15 KV CLASS UNDERGROUND DISTRIBUTION
SYSTEMS
The potential for ferroresonance has caused nearly all utilities in the U.S. to apply grounded
wye-wye transformers at 25 and 35 kV classes. However, many utilities continue to use delta-
connected primaries on underground transformers at 12.47 kV for decades with no known
difficulties. There may be a perception that ferroresonance cannot happen in 15 kV class
systems. While it is less likely, it is still possible. One factor is the proportion of losses. Newer,
low-loss transformer designs are making it more likely than previously.
In one case, a utility that was constructing a new 12.47 kV underground service for a multi-
building complex. As each cable run and padmount transformer was connected, the system was
energized from the riser pole cutouts to test it. At some point, the number of transformers and
cable capacitance was sufficient to support strong ferroresonance.
The problem in this case was first noticed when the unloaded system was being de-energized
after testing. When the second cutout was pulled, leaving one, the transformers started making
an unusual loud noises. When the final cutout was pulled, a large arc was drawn that could not
be extinguished simply by pulling the cutout open with a hot stick. This would suggest that a
large current was flowing, much the surprise of the line personnel, who believed the system to
be unloaded.
Subsequent measurements with a power quality monitor showed very unusual voltage
waveforms. These were easily duplicated by simulation and found to be the expected line-to-line
voltages during delta winding ferroresonance with two cutouts open. This demonstrates that
ferroresonance is not just a 25 kV or 35 kV system phenomenon, but can occur at any voltage
with the appropriate combination of cable capacitance, transformer connection, and losses.
The transformers were not damaged despite the impressive display of audible noise
and arcing. However, some surge protectors on the low voltage side were blown off the
wall. It is not known if this happened during the ferroresonant activity or after. It may
have occurred when the cutouts were pushed back in after the third one failed to clear.
This type of failure often occurs when the surge protectors have become overheated.
Re-establishing full power makes available enough fault current to cause catastrophic
failure.
Normally, ferroresonance is no longer a problem once the system is loaded. However,
ferroresonance from the two-phase open condition on a delta transformer often requires
more load to damp it out than the one-phase open case.
OBSERVATIONS
Some points common to all three of these cases include:
The event was caused by opening one or two phases, either intentionally or
accidentally
The basic situation is established by the commonplace UD cable service drop from an
overhead line.
The cable system had either light load or no load.
The transformers were not permanently damaged (to Dugans knowledge).
Damage did occur to load side equipment.
VI. CORRECTIVE MEASURES
Corrective measures include:
Use three-phase switchgear instead of fuses. This is not economical in many cases.
Open or close all three cutouts as simultaneously as possible.
Ensure the transformer is loaded while being switched.
Eliminate fuses. Rely on feeder breaker for fault interruption.
Various measures to prevent inadvertent fuse operation.
Obviously, each of these measures have certain costs associated with them. Distribution
engineers may simply choose to accept the risk or adapt operating procedures to minimize it.
There may be no economical way of dealing with certain accidental occurrences.
Chapter 14 - Lightning
14.1 THE SCOPE OF THE LIGHTNING PROBLEM
From the report issued by a Joint IEEE-EEI

Committee studying outages on EHV Lines:
lightning is the greatest single cause of
outages, accounting for about 26% of the outages
on 230 kV circuits and about 65% of the outages on
345 kV.
Data gathered over a 14-year period in the US and
Canda
From a UK study on data gathered over 14 years on
circuits up to and including 33 kV:
47% of all outages were caused by lightning
Lightning as transients?
In Section 1.1, it was asserted that electrical
transients are the outward manifestation of a
sudden change in circuit conditions.
Clouds acquire charge or at least become
polarized, so that electric fields of considerable
strength are created within the cloud and between
the cloud and adjacent masses, such as earth and
other clouds.
When these fields become excessive, to the extent
that the dielectric of the intervening space can no
longer support the electric stress, a breakdown or
lightning flash occurs
This is usually a high-current discharge (Really?)
The lightning strokes that create problems for the
utility engineer are those that terminate on or
nearby power lines.
These close a giant switch between the cloud
and the power line or adjacent earth.
This is either a direct connection to the line, or
It completes a circuit with lose mutual (inductive)
coupling to the line.
Frequently the line will be raised to such a potential
that further flashes will occur to grounded
structures.
Else, the grounded structures may be raised to
such a potential that they flash over to the line
Ground Potential Rise (GPR)
Yet another path for current is introduced, and
another source for transients is created.

6. lightning
Transient to the power grid
Undoubtedly, Lightning Is The Most Common And

Widely Known Source Of Transients To The Power
Grid
From the report issued by a Joint IEEE-EEI Committee studying
outages on EHV Lines,
lightning is the greatest single cause of outages, accounting
for about 26% of the outages on 230 kV circuits and about 65%
of the outages on 345 kV.
This conclusion was reached by analyzing data gathered over a 14-
year period in the US and Canada from some 42 operating companies,
from 386 high-voltage circuits, representing 25,499 miles of
transmission lines.
From a UK study on data gathered over 14 years on circuits up to and
including 33 kV, 47% of all outages were caused by lightning.[1]
Lightning
6. lightning
Formation
Lightning is formed by a buildup of charge between

clouds and the earth, or between clouds.
Clouds acquire charge or at least become polarized, so that electric fields of considerable
strength are created within the cloud and between the cloud and adjacent masses, such
as earth and other clouds.
When these fields become excessive, to the extent that the dielectric of the intervening
space can no longer support the electric stress, a breakdown or lightning flash occurs.
This is usually the high-current discharge that we are all familiar with.
The lightning strokes that create problems for the utility engineer are those that terminate on or nearby power
lines.fields effectively close a giant switch between the cloud and the power line or
These
adjacent earth. This is either a direct connection to the line, or it completes a circuit with
loose mutual inductive coupling to the line.
Frequently the line will be raised to such a potential that further flashes will occur to
grounded structures.
Else, the grounded structures may be raised to such a potential that they flash over to the line.[1]
Lightning Formation
6. lightning
The Mechanisms of Lightning
In one theory about the creation of lightning:

Raindrops falling in the electric field that normally exists in the earth's atmosphere
become polarized, bottom positive and top negative
The normal direction of this field
And that subsequently they attract negative charges to them.

Clusters of ions of both signs are to be found in the atmosphere at all times.
The raindrops apparently capture these selectively, acquiring a negative charge in

the air.
The updrafts tend to carry up to the top of the cloud the positive air and smaller
drop that the wind can blow against gravity.
Meanwhile, the falling heavier raindrops bring negative charge to the base of the
cloud.[1]
One Theory
6. lightning
Another theory on the formation of lightning: When water droplets break
up, they acquire a positive charge and in the process negative charges is
imparted into the air around
The electric flux lines start on a positive charge and terminate on a
negative charge
The charge may be within the cloud or on the ground below.
The field pattern on the ground and in the cloud accord with the
distribution of charge shown in the figure to the right.
The field measurements in planes z1 and z2 are represented by the

columns shown in those locations, the width of the columns being
proportional to the field.
The potential gradient pattern on the ground which is associated with
bound charges on the earth's surface or structures thereon moves as Hypothetical case of a cloud
the cloud moves with a positive charge in the
upper part, a negative charge in
And changes as the charge distribution inside the the lower part, and a small
cloud changes.[1] region of positive charge near
the base. [1]
Another Theory
6. lightning
The earth carries a net negative

charge of the order of 5x105 coulomb
(C)
This produces a downwardly directed
atmospheric electric field with an
intensity of about 0.13 kV/m at its
surface. [1]
Generalized diagram showing air current and
As a result of the vertical electric distribution of electricity in a typical heat
thunderstorm.
field, the upper atmosphere is at a
mean potential of about + 300 kV
relative to earth [1]
Conditions are now favorable for a

lightning stroke!
Another Theory
6. lightning
As the charges build up within the cloud and by
induction on the earth below, a point is reached
locally within the cloud where the electric field is
sufficient to cause breakdown.
In air at atmospheric pressure this is approximately

30 kV/cm. [1]
However, in the cloud with the high moisture

content at a lower pressure because of its altitude,
local breakdown may occur at lower gradient,
perhaps as low as 10 kV/cm.
This initiates the development of a stepped leader
stroke, a discharge which progresses in a somewhat (a) The luminous feature of a lightning flash -
random manner by short steps from the cloud multiple imaging
toward the earth.[1] (b) The same flash - stationary imaging.
Leaders and strokes are demonstrated to the right
Another Theory
6. lightning
Video: Lightning Stroke In Slow Motion
APOD 2012 July 23 - Lightning Captured at 7207 Images per Second.mp4
Lightning Video
Defense|2013 ISPCE
6. lightning
Lightning Data from NASA-Kennedy Space Center
NASA gathered the following lightning data from a lightning protection system
(LPS) installed on one of its launch complexes that was well instrumented with
meteorological and lightning data acquisition systems from late 2010 until mid-
2011: [3]
About 63% of the direct flashes were multiple-stroke flashes (5 of 8) and only
20% of them (1 of 5) had all of its return strokes (3) terminating at the same
location.
The median peak current, calculated as the algebraic sum of down-conductor

currents to ground, was 29.1 kA for 16 return strokes.
Rise-times, 10% to 90%, were between 1 and 6 s, with an arithmetic mean

of 2.9 s.
Rocket science!
Lightning Data from NASA-Kennedy Space Center
Defense|2013 ISPCE
Pre-Strike Theory
The leader has a pestle shape and that it contains
far more charge than originally supposed.
Before the leader reaches the ground, a discharge
somewhat similar to it rises from the ground to
meet it.
Similarities between the lightning stroke in its
formative stages and phenomena observed in
negative point-to-plane corona.
This has been shown to be a pulsating discharge;
current which is choked off by field distortion
produced by negative ions, develops again as the
ions disperse.
But it has also been shown that at high fields, a
pulse-free mode can exist.
Once the stepped leader has established a connection
to earth, there is general agreement that a power return
stroke moves swiftly up the ionized channel prepared
by the leader.
This is very intense and travels much more quickly than
the leader.
What we are witnessing is the neutralization of the
charge in the leader channel, or the progressive
discharge of the channel to ground.
The rate of propagation and the quantity of charge
involved is of great practical concern when the ground
termination of the stroke is at a transmission line tower,
conductor, or ground wire.
When the leader commences its progress towards earth,
other leaders may well push out within the cloud to
other centers of charge so that the sequence of events
just described is frequently not confined to one location
in a thundercloud.
Alternatively, the discharge to ground may disturb
the
potential balance within the cloud to the point that
an internal discharge is triggered. The
consequence of either of these events is that quite
often they will precipitate further strokes to ground
down the original.
It is well established that what appears to the eye
as a single flash of lightning is frequently the
integrated effect of several strokes, at intervals of
50 ms or so.
Figure 14.3 shows three such flashes in a stroke.
It has been analyzed that while 76% of flashes are
single stroke events, almost 3% have more than
ten strokes in their flash.
Chapter 14 Lightning Part 2
ECE 611 - Spring 2014

Side Flashing Results from Excessively Long Grounding
Conductor and Lack of Bonding (from AT&T 876-210-100, Issue 1, January 1978)
14.3 INTERACTIONS BETWEEN LIGHTNING AND
THE POWER SYSTEM
How is circuit completed between clouds and

transmission tower? How does the current return?
Think of cloud and earth as forming a capacitor
which is being discharged by the stroke.
Return current would be completed by displacement
current in the electric field.

Suppose we represent the cloud and earth as a capacitor having parallel plates
of circular shape with a radius of 1 km and a separation (height of cloud) of 1
km, and let the stroke be 20 cm in diameters. Then,
(Do not need to memorize for mid-term)
Cloud
Stroke
Lightning stroke from cloud to earth discharges a vast capacitor

For
,, and a path 1 km long, the total inductance
2.18 mH.
The capacitance is given by:
Surge Impedance is and a period, if the current

would oscillate, of about
Equivalent Circuits of Lightning Stoke to Tower
You can be familiar with elements

approach,
but sufficient info given on mid-
term, if asked
ZGW is impedance of ground wires,
L1 and L2 would
be lightning atmospheric
induction, ETT is voltage
at the tower top to earth, and ITB
is current from
the top to the bottom of the
tower
Traveling wave equivalent Lumped parameter equivalent

Be able to read a thunderstorm map
The isokeraunic number is the average number of days per

year when thunder can be heard in a given area.
Average Number of Days with Thunderstorms (United States)
(from Bell System Practice 876-100-100), Issue 9, May 1983)
You should understand that the electric shadow, cone of protection, and
rolling spheres are methods where large grounded objects protect circuits and
equipment in the shadow, cone, or sphere
If the tower tops are connected by a single ground
wire of surge impedance of ZGw=520 , the effective
surge impedance is
The half is included with the ZGw since a wave

propagates in both directions form the stricken point.
Realize that this is just two parallel impedances

If asked, realize that you are calculating voltage, current,
or impedance on tower based on factors given.
Parallel impedance calculated above
No reflection calculations, but understand that fast rise times have high frequency
components, and as you approach light in frequency, power mismatches result in
reflected energy. The atmosphere and the tower are not tuned form matching
impedances like a radio circuit!

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What Can We Speculate About

The neutral conductor carries a

Region Nominal Phase-to- Nominal Phase-to-

Europe 230 V 400 V

North America 120 V 208 V

In some commercial and industrial

Region Nominal Phase-to-Phase Voltage

North America 240V

This system is prevalent in

120/240 V ac, Single Phase, Three-

Annex V of IEC 60950-1

In other countries, IT power

Realize that not referencing the power

3 Realize that you can monitor neutral currents for

Kirchoffs Current Law

If you have a 16 A , 240 V load

If you have a 16 A , 240 V load

IA= 16 A +10 A =26 A

or 10A away from neutral

If you have a 10 A, 120 V load on

or 4A away from neutral

Wiring and secondary loads have

From circling an LC loop, the above equation for current

For mid-term, you do not have to memorize Laplace transforms, except

F(t) Type F(s) Example

u(t) Step Point where switch is

at Exponential 1 Voltage decay in

Fig. 4.1. Parallel and Series RLC Circuits

Parallel (a) and Series (b) RLC

As seen previously, the inductance L and

for parallel RLC circuits

For mid-term, study , , and determine if circuit is overdamped,

Current cannot cease suddenly through an inductive circuit

Consider a 1000-kVA, 13.8kV transformer of the kind

, where =2f, and f=60 Hz, so =377

So, V=IZ0 in an LC circuit. If I=2.5A because of harmonic distortion:

So, the result is a transient voltage of 132.3kV on a 13.8 kV system, an

February 27, 2014

In the phenomenon of series resonance, a very high voltage can

In the functioning of an electrical utility, such resonant conditions are

Resistance is always present in any practical reactor,

The voltage limiting effect of the resistance is quite

Dugan, in analyzing examples of ferroresonance events, notes the following

Dugans causes and recommendations will be on Mid-Term

Corrective measures to prevent ferroresonance

Using three-phase switchgear instead of fuses.

Open or close all three cutouts as simultaneously as possible.

Ensure the transformer is loaded while being switched.

Various measures to prevent inadvertent fuse operation.[2]

Dugans causes and recommendations will be on Mid-Term

From the report issued by a Joint IEEE-EEI

Undoubtedly, Lightning Is The Most Common And

Lightning is formed by a buildup of charge between

In one theory about the creation of lightning:

And that subsequently they attract negative charges to them.

The raindrops apparently capture these selectively, acquiring a negative charge in

The charge may be within the cloud or on the ground below.

The field measurements in planes z1 and z2 are represented by the

The earth carries a net negative

Conditions are now favorable for a

In air at atmospheric pressure this is approximately

However, in the cloud with the high moisture

Leaders and strokes are demonstrated to the right

APOD 2012 July 23 - Lightning Captured at 7207 Images per Second.mp4