Welding Inspector

Weldability Of Steels
Section 21
 Weldability of Steels
Definition
It relates to the ability of the metal (or alloy) to be welded with
mechanical soundness by most of the common welding
processes, and the resulting welded joint retain the
properties for which it has been designed.
is a function of many inter-related factors but these may be
summarised as:
Composition of parent material
Joint design and size
Process and technique
Access
 Weldability of Steels
The weldability of steel is mainly dependant on carbon & other alloying
elements content.

If a material has limited weldability, we need to take special measures

to ensure the maintenance of the properties required

Poor weldability normally results in the occurrence of cracking

A steel is considered to have poor weldability when:

an acceptable joint can only be made by using very narrow range

of welding conditions

great precautions to avoid cracking are essential (e.g., high pre-

heat etc)
The Effect of Alloying on Steels
Elements may be added to steels to produce the
properties required to make it useful for an application.
Most elements can have many effects on the properties
of steels.
Other factors which affect material properties are:
The temperature reached before and during welding
Heat input
The cooling rate after welding and or PWHT
 Steel Alloying Elements
Iron (Fe): Main steel constituent. On its own, is relatively soft, ductile, with low
strength.
Carbon (C): Major alloying element in steels, a strengthening element with
major influence on HAZ hardness. Decreases weldability.
typically < ~ 0.25%

Manganese (Mn): Secondary only to carbon for strength, toughness and

ductility, secondary de-oxidiser and also reacts with sulphur to form
manganese sulphide.
< ~0.8% is residual from steel de-oxidation
up to ~1.6% (in C-Mn steels) improves strength & toughness

Silicon (Si): Residual element from steel de-oxidation.

typically to ~0.35%
 Steel Alloying Elements
Phosphorus (P): Residual element from steel-making minerals. difficult to
reduce below < ~ 0.015% brittleness

Sulphur (S): Residual element from steel-making minerals

< ~ 0.015% in modern steels
< ~ 0.003% in very clean steels

Aluminium (Al): De-oxidant and grain size control

typically ~ 0.02 to ~ 0.05%

Chromium (Cr): For creep resistance & oxidation (scaling) resistance for
elevated temperature service. Widely used in stainless steels for
corrosion resistance, increases hardness and strength but reduces
ductility.
typically ~ 1 to 9% in low alloy steels
 Steel Alloying Elements
Nickel (Ni): Used in stainless steels, high resistance to corrosion from
acids, increases strength and toughness

Molybdenum (Mo): Affects hardenability. Steels containing

molybdenum are less susceptible to temper brittleness than other
alloy steels. Increases the high temperature tensile and creep
strengths of steel. typically ~ 0.5 to 1.0%

Niobium (Nb): a grain refiner, typically~ 0.05%

Vanadium (V): a grain refiner, typically ~ 0.05%
Titanium (Ti): a grain refiner, typically ~ 0.05%
Copper (Cu): present as a residual, (typically < ~ 0.30%)
added to weathering steels (~ 0.6%) to give better resistance to
atmospheric corrosion
 Classification of Steels
Mild steel (CE < 0.4)
Readily weldable, preheat generally not required if low hydrogen
processes or electrodes are used
Preheat may be required when welding thick section material,
high restraint and with higher levels of hydrogen being
generated

C-Mn, medium carbon, low alloy steels (CE 0.4 to 0.5)

Thin sections can be welded without preheat but thicker sections
will require low preheat levels and low hydrogen processes or
electrodes should be used

Higher carbon and alloyed steels (CE > 0.5)

Preheat, low hydrogen processes or electrodes, post weld
heating and slow cooling may be required
 Process Cracks
Hydrogen Induced HAZ Cracking (C/Mn steels)

Hydrogen Induced Weld Metal Cracking (HSLA steels).

Solidification or Hot Cracking (All steels)

Lamellar Tearing (All steels)

Re-heat Cracking (All steels, very susceptible Cr/Mo/V

steels)
Inter-Crystalline Corrosion or Weld Decay (stainless
steels)
 Cracking
When considering any type of cracking mechanism, three
elements must always be present:
Stress
Residual stress is always present in a weldment, through
unbalanced local expansion and contraction

Restraint
Restraint may be a local restriction, or through plates
being welded to each other

Susceptible microstructure
The microstructure may be made susceptible to cracking
by the process of welding
 Cracks

Hydrogen Induced Cold Cracking

 Hydrogen Induced Cold Cracking
May occur: Also know as:
up to 48 hrs after completion Cold Cracking, happens when
the welds cool down.
In weld metal, HAZ, parent
metal. HAZ cracking, normally occurs
in the HAZ.
At weld toes
Delayed cracking, as it takes
Under weld beads time for the hydrogen to
migrate. 48 Hours normally but
At stress raisers. up to 72,
Under-bead cracking, normally
happens in the HAZ under a
weld bead
 Hydrogen Induced Cold Cracking

There is a risk of hydrogen cracking when all of the 4

factors occur together:
Hydrogen More than 15ml/100g of weld metal
Stress More than the yield stress
Temperature Below 300oC
Hardness Greater than 400HV Vickers

Susceptible Microstructure (Martensite)

Hydrogen Induced Cold Cracking
 Hydrogen Induced Cold Cracking
Precautions for controlling hydrogen cracking
Pre heat, removes moisture from the joint preparations, and
slows down the cooling rate
Ensure joint preparations are clean and free from
contamination
The use of a low hydrogen welding process and correct arc
length
Ensure all welding is carried out is carried out under controlled
environmental conditions
Ensure good fit-up as to reduced stress
The use of a PWHT
Avoid poor weld profiles
 Hydrogen Induced Cold Cracking
Hydrogen is the smallest atom known

Hydrogen enters the weld via the arc

Source of hydrogen mainly from moisture pick-up on the
electrodes coating, welding fluxes or from the consumable
gas

Water vapour Moisture on

in the air or H2 the electrode
in the H2 or grease on
shielding gas the wire
H2
Oxide or grease on H2 H2
the plate
Hydrogen Induced Cold Cracking
Cellulosic electrodes Hydrogen absorbed
produce hydrogen as a in a long, or
shielding gas unstable arc

Hydrogen introduced in Hydrogen

weld from consumable,
crack
oils, or paint on plate

H2 H2

Martensite forms from H2 diffuses to in HAZ

 Hydrogen Induced Cold Cracking
Susceptible Microstructure:
Hard brittle structure MARTENSITE Promoted by:
A) High Carbon Content, Carbon Equivalent (CE)
CEV = %C + Mn + Cr+Mo+V + Ni+Cu
6 5 15
B) high alloy content
C) fast cooling rate: Inadequate Pre-Heating
Cold Material
Thick Material
Low Heat Input.

Heat input (Kj/mm) = Amps x Volts x arc time

Run out length x 103 (1000)
Hydrogen Induced Cold Cracking

Typical locations for Cold Cracking

 HICC in HSLA steels
HSLA or Micro-Alloyed Steels are high strength steels
(800MPa/N/mm2) that derive their high strength from small
percentage alloying (over-alloyed Weld metal to match the
strength of parent metal)
Typically the level of alloying is in the elements such as
vanadium molybdenum and titanium, nickel and chromium
Strength. are used. It would be impossible to match this micro
alloying in the electrode due to the effect of losses across an
electric arc (Ti burn in the arc)
It is however important to match the strength of the weld to
the strength of the plate, Mn 1.6 Cr Ni Mo
 Hydrogen Scales

List of hydrogen scales from BS EN 1011:part 2.

Hydrogen content related to 100 grams of weld
metal deposited.
Scale A High: >15 ml
Scale B Medium: 10 ml - 15 ml
Scale C Low: 5 ml - 10 ml
Scale D Very low: 3 ml - 5 ml
Scale E Ultra-low: < 3 ml
 Potential Hydrogen Level Processes
list of welding processes in order of potential lowest hydrogen content with
regards to 100g of deposited weld metal.

TIG < 3 ml
MIG < 5 ml
ESW < 5 ml
MMA (Basic Electrodes) < 5 ml
SAW < 10ml
FCAW < 15 ml
 Weldability
Solidification Cracking
 Solidification Cracking

Usually Occurs in Weld Centerline

 Solidification Cracking
Also referred as
Hot Cracking: Occurring at high temperatures while the weld is hot
Centerline cracking: cracks appear down the centre line of the bead.
Crater cracking: Small cracks in weld centers are solidification cracks

Crack type: Solidification cracking

Location: Weld centreline (longitudinal)
Steel types: High sulphur & phosphor concentration in steels.
Susceptible Microstructure: Columnar grains In direction of solidification
 Solidification Cracking
Factors for solidification cracking
Columnar grain growth with impurities in weld metal (sulphur,
phosphor and carbon)
The amount of stress/restraint
Joint design high depth to width ratios
Liquid iron sulphides are formed around solidifying grains.
High contractional strains are present
High dilution processes are being used.

There is a high carbon content in the weld metal

Most commonly occurring in sub-arc welded joints
 Solidification Cracking
Sulphur in the parent material may dilute in the weld
metal to form iron sulphides (low strength, low
melting point compounds)
During weld metal solidification, columnar crystals
push still liquid iron sulphides in front to the last place
of solidification, weld centerline.
The bonding between the grains which are
themselves under great stress and may now be very
poor to maintain cohesion and a crack will result,
weld centerline.
 Solidification Cracking
Avoidance
Intergranular liquid film
Columnar
grains HAZ Columnar HAZ
grains

Shallow, wider weld bead Deep, narrower weld bead

On solidification the
bonding between the
grains may be adequate to
maintain cohesion and a
crack is unlikely to occur
On solidification the
bonding between the grains
may now be very poor to
maintain cohesion and a
crack may result
 Solidification Cracking
Precautions for controlling solidification cracking
The first steps in eliminating this problem would be to choose a low
dilution process, and change the joint design
Grind and seal in any lamination and avoid further dilution????
Add Manganese to the electrode to form spherical Mn/S which form
between the grain and maintain grain cohesion
As carbon increases the Mn/S ratio required increases
exponentially and is a major factor. Carbon content % should be a
minimised by careful control in electrode and dilution
Limit the heat input, hence low contraction, & minimise restraint
 Solidification Cracking
Precautions for controlling solidification cracking
The use of high manganese and low carbon content fillers

Minimise the amount of stress / restraint acting on the joint

during welding
The use of high quality parent materials, low levels of
impurities (Phosphor & sulphur)
Clean joint preparations contaminants (oil, grease, paints
and any other sulphur containing product)
Joint design selection depth to width ratios
 Solidification Cracking
Solidification cracking in Austenitic Stainless Steel
particularly prone to solidification cracking

large grain size gives rise to a reduction in grain boundary area

with high concentration of impurities

Austenitic structure very intolerant to contaminants (sulphur,

phosphorous and other impurities).

High coefficient of thermal expansion /Low coefficient of thermal

conductivity, with high resultant residual stress

same precautions against cracking as for plain carbon steels

with extra emphasis on thorough cleaning and high dilution
controls.
 Cracks

Lamellar Tearing
 Lamellar Tearing
Factors for lamellar tearing to occur
Cracks only occur in the rolled plate !
Close to or just outside the HAZ !
Cracks lay parallel to the plate surface and the fusion boundary of the weld and has a stepped
aspect.
Low quality parent materials, high levels of impurities
Joint design, direction of stress
The amount of stress acting across the joint during welding
Note: very susceptible joints may form lamellar tearing under very low levels of stress
 Lamellar Tearing
Susceptible joint types combined with susceptible rolled plate
used to make a joint.

High stresses act in the through thickness direction of the plate

(know as the short transverse direction).

T, K & Y joints normally end up with a tensile residual stress

component in the through thickness direction.

Tee fillet weld Tee butt weld Corner butt weld

(double-bevel) (single-bevel)
Lamellar Tearing
Critical area Critical area

Critical
area
 Lamellar Tearing
Modifying a corner joint to avoid lamellar tearing

Susceptible Non-Susceptible

Prior welding both An open corner joint

plates may be grooved may be selected to
to avoid lamellar tearing avoid lamellar tearing
 Lamellar Tearing
Precautions for controlling lamellar tearing
The use of high quality parent materials, low levels of
impurities
The use of buttering runs
A gap can be left between the horizontal and vertical members
enabling the contraction movement to take place
Joint design selection
Minimise the amount of stress / restraint acting on the joint
during welding
Hydrogen precautions
 Lamellar Tearing
Crack type: Lamellar tearing
Location: Below weld HAZ
Steel types: High sulphur & phosphorous steels
Microstructure: Lamination & Segregation
Occurs when:
High contractional strains are through the short transverse
direction. There is a high sulfur content in the base metal.
There is low through thickness ductility in the base metal.
There is high restraint on the work
 Short Tensile (Through Thickness) Test
The short tensile test or through thickness test is a
test to determine a materials susceptibility to
lamellar tearing

Friction Welded Caps

Short Tensile Specimen
Sample of Parent Material

Through
Thickness
Ductility

The results are given as a STRA value

Short Transverse Reduction in Area
 Lamellar Tearing

Restraint

Lamellar tear
High contractional
strains