SYMPOSIUM ON

SYSTEMATIC
DESENSITISATION
- LEARNING
THEORIES
 Q: HOW DO PEOPLE LEARN?

A:
NOBODY
REALLY
KNOWS.
LEARNING defined as..,
1. A persisting change in human performance or
performance potential . . . (brought) about as a
result of the learners interaction with the
environment (Driscoll, 1994, pp. 8-9).
2. The relatively permanent change in a persons
knowledge or behavior due to experience
(Mayer, 1982, p. 1040).
3. An enduring change in behavior, or in the
capacity to behave in a given fashion, which
results from practice or other forms of
experience (Shuell, 1986, p. 412).
 HISTORY..
Ivan petrovich pavlov - 1903-1928- Classical
conditioning
John B.Watson ----- 1907-1925 founder of Behaviourism
Edward L Thorndike- 1913- Law of effect, Instrumental
learning
B.F.Skinner -------- 1930s- Operant conditioning
Albert Bandura ----- Observational learning
Eric Kandel -------- Habituation and sensitization
Kohler ------------ Insight learning
1950s & 60s----- Applied behavioural analysis
Late 1960s-------- cognitive learning
 TYPES OF LEARNING

A. ASSOCIATIVE ;

1. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING.
2. INSTRUMENTAL CONDITIONING.
3. COMPLEX LEARNING.

B. NON ASSOCIATIVE ;

1. HABITUATION.
2. SENSITIZATION.
 6 MAIN THEORIES OF
LEARNING:
1. BEHAVIOURISM.
2. COGNITIVISM .
3. SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY.
4. SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISM.
5. MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES.
6. BRAIN-BASED LEARNING .
 Other Learning Theories of Note
Andragogy (M. Knowles)
Flow (M. Czikszentmihalyi)
Situated Learning (J. Lave)
Subsumption Theory (D. Ausubel)
Conditions of Learning (R. Gagne)
LEARNING THEORY

1. BEHAVIOURISM
 BEHAVIOURISM..,
; Learning is defined by the outward
expression of new behaviors.

;Confined to observable and measurable

behavior.

; A biological basis for learning .

;Learning is context-independent
 BEHAVIOURISM..,
1. CLASSICAL
CONDITIONING
IVAN PETROVICH
PAVLOV
 BEHAVIOURISM..,

1. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING;
The association of a neutral
stimulus with an unconditioned
stimulus, such that, the neutral
stimulus comes to bring about a
response similar to that originally
elicited by the unconditioned
stimulus.
Also known as PAVLOVIAN or
RESPONDANT CONDITIONING.
 BEHAVIOURISM..,
1. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING;
A. Two Stimuli;
1. UCS; A stimulus that automatically elicits/evokes
a response, typically via reflex, without previous
learning or conditioning,.
2. CS(NS) ; A previous neutral stimulus that has,
through conditioning, acquired the capacity to evoke a
CR.
B. Two Responses;
1. UCR; Natural reflex to a stimulus; permanent.
2. CR; Reflex learned through experience; Not
permanent.
 BEHAVIOURISM..,
A stimulus is presented in order to get a response.
UNCONDITIONED ASSOCIATION;
UCS UR

CONDITIONED ASSOCIATION;

NS NO RESPONSE
NS + UCS UCR
CS CR
BEHAVIOURISM..,
 BEHAVIOURISM..,
1. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING;.

A. ACQUISITION;
Refers to Initial stage of learning.
Depends on stimulus contiguity or the occurrence of
stimuli together in time and space.
Stimuli that are novel, unusual or especially intense
have more potential to become condition stimulus than
routine stimuli.
B. EXTINCTION;
The gradual weakening and disappearance of a
conditional response, due to consistent presentation of the
conditional stimulus alone, without the unconditioned
stimulus.
Used to remove or reduce conditioned reflex.
 BEHAVIOURISM..,
1. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING;.

C. SPONTANEOUS RECOVERY;
The appearance of an extinguished response
after a period of non exposure to the conditioned
stimulus.
Rejuvenated response is weaker.
Suggests that extinction just suppresses or
interferes with conditioned response rather than
erasing a learned association.
D. STIMULUS GENERALISATION;
Occurs when the organism learned to respond to
a specific stimulus, responds in the same way to new
stimuli, that are similar to the original stimuli.
 BEHAVIOURISM..,
1. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING;

E. STIMULUS DISCRIMINATION;
occurs when an organism that has learned a
response to a specific stimulus, does not respond in
the same way to a new stimuli, that are similar to the
original stimulus.
the lesser similar new stimuli to the original
condition stimulus, the greater the likelihood of
discrimination.
F. EXCITATORY CONDITIONING;
ability of the conditioned stimulus to increase the
probability or magnitude of behavioral response.
G. INHIBITORY CONDITIONING;
ability of the conditioned stimulus to decrease the
probability or magnitude of behavioral response.
 BEHAVIOURISM..,
1. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING;

H. SECOND ORDER CONDITIONING;

the ability of a stimulus to produce a conditioned
response after being paired with a conditioned stimulus
which was in turn paired earlier with an unconditioned
stimulus.
cs(tone)+ucs (meat)----ucr/cr (salivation)
cs(light)+cs(tone)----- (salivation)
cs(light)--------------(salivation)
I. BLOCKING;
Conditioning is not an inevitable consequence of pairing
a CS with a UCS. Such pairings will not cause conditioning
if there is a second CS present that already predicts the
UCS. This finding is known as Blocking.
Operant Conditioning

B.F. Skinner
(1904-1990)
elaborated
Thorndikes Law of
Effect
developed
behavioral
technology
Thorndikes Law of Effect
Rewarded Behavior is likely to
recur.
Behavior followed by a negative
consequence is less likely to recur.
- E. L. THORNDYKE

So named because
behavior becomes more
or less likely based on the
effect it has in producing
desirable or undesirable
consequences.
 Operant Behavior Is Voluntary &
Directed by Consequences
B. F. Skinner made the law of effect as the cornerstone
for his influential theory of learning, called operant
conditioning.

According to Skinner, the organisms behavior is

operating on the environment to achieve some
desired goal.

Operant conditioning:
learning,
in which,
the behavior is strengthened, if followed by
reinforcement
& weakened if followed by punishment
 Operant Conditioning
Operant Chamber (Skinner Box)
soundproof chamber with a bar or key
that an animal can manipulate to obtain a
food or water reinforcer.
contains a device to record responses
automated to record the animals bar
presses and deliver food pellets
Skinner box is an efficient way to study
how an animals ongoing behaviors may
. be modified by changing the
consequences of what happens after a
bar press.
a hungry rat will be more willing to eat
the food reward
operant response:
condition the rat to press the bar
 SKINNERS BOX.
.
 SHAPING PRINCIPLES
Skinner box;
soundproof box with a bar that an
animal presses or pecks to release a food
or water reward, and a device that records
these responses.
Shaping;
procedure in which rewards, such as
food, gradually guide an animals behavior
toward a desired behavior.
Technique used to establish a new
behavior.
Successive approximations ;
Shaping method in which you reward
 REINFORCEMENT/PUNIS
HMENT
Reinforcement - Any consequence that increases
the likelihood of the behavior it follows
Reinforcement is ALWAYS GOOD!!!

Punishment - Any consequence that decreases

the likelihood of the behavior it follows

THE SUBJECT DETERMINES IF A

CONSEQUENCE IS REINFORCING OR
PUNISHING
 A Reinforcer Increases the
Probability
of the Behavior It Follows
The fundamental principle of
behaviorism is that rewarded behavior
is likely to be repeated.

This is known as reinforcement in

operant conditioning.

It also states the positive side of

Thorndikes Law of Effect.
 A Reinforcer Increases the Probability
of the Behavior It Follows
Primary versus secondary reinforcers;
Primary reinforcers:
innately reinforcingsatisfy biological needs.
Secondary reinforcers:
learned and become reinforcing when associated with a
primary reinforcer
Positive and negative reinforcers;
Positive reinforcers:
strengthen a response by presenting a positive stimulus after
a response
Negative reinforcers:
strengthens a response by removing an aversive stimulus
after a response
Principles of Reinforcement
Reinforcing/Desirable Aversive/UnDesirable
Stimulus Stimulus

Stimulus is presented
or added to animals
environment
Positive (+) Positive (+)
Reinforcement Punishment
Add something you DO Add something you DO
LIKE. NOT LIKE.
Behavior Increases Behavior Decreases

Stimulus is removed
or taken away from
animals
environment
Negative (-) Negative (-)
Punishment Reinforcement
TAKES AWAY something TAKES AWAY something
you DO LIKE. you DO NOT LIKE.
Behavior Decreases Behavior Increases


Positive and Negative Reinforcement, Positive
and Negative Punishment
Positive/Negative Reinforcement

BOTH ARE GOOD THINGS!!!

Different Reinforcement Schedules Lead to Different
Learning and Performance Rates
Continuous reinforcement;
A schedule of reinforcement in which a reward follows every
correct response
Learning occurs rapidly
But the behavior will extinguish quickly once the reinforcement
stops.
Partial Reinforcement ;
A schedule of reinforcement in which a reward follows only some
correct responses
Learning of behavior will take longer.
But will be more resistant to extinction.
Includes the following types:
Fixed-interval and variable interval.
Fixed-ratio and variable-ratio.
 Different Reinforcement
Schedules Lead to Different
Learning and Performance Rates
Fixed-interval schedules:
reinforce the first response after a fixed-time interval has
elapsed

Fixed-ratio schedules:
reinforce a response after a specified number of non-
reinforced responses

Variable-interval schedules:
reinforce the first response after a variable-time interval
has elapsed

Variable-ratio schedules:
reinforce a response after a variable number of non-
reinforced responses
 PUNISHMENT:
The process by which a consequence
decreases the probability of the
behavior that it follows.
Punishment Should Be Used
Only under Certain Circumstances

To be effective in reducing unwanted

behaviors,
The punishment must be prompt,
It must be relatively strong, and
It must be consistently applied.
 PUNISHMENT
1. Punishment can effectively control
certain behaviors if
It comes immediately after the
undesired behavior
It is consistent and not occasional
2. Especially useful if teaching a child not
to do a dangerous behavior.
Most people still suggest
reinforcing an incompatible behavior
rather than using punishment.
 Bad Effects of Punishment

;Does not teach or promote alternative,

acceptable behavior.
;Only tells what NOT to do, while
reinforcement tells what to do.
;Can lead to fear of the punisher,
anxiety, and lower self-esteem
;Children who are punished physically
may learn to use aggression as a
means to solve problems.
Cognitive Aspects of Operant
Conditioning
Latent learninglearning that
occurs in the absence of
reinforcement, but is not
demonstrated until a reinforcer is
available
Cognitive map term for a mental
representation of the layout of a
familiar environment
Learned helplessness
phenomenon where exposure to
inescapable and uncontrollable
Classical Conditioning vs.
Operant Conditioning
CRITIQUES OF BEHAVIOURISM..,

Does not account for processes taking

place in the mind that cannot be
observed
Advocates for passive student learning
in a teacher-centric environment
Programmed instruction & teacher-
proofing
Knowledge itself is given and absolute
LEARNING THEORY

2. Cognitivism
 COGNITIVISM
Grew in response to Behaviorism
Knowledge is stored cognitively as
symbols
Learning is the process of connecting
symbols in a meaningful &
memorable way
Studies focused on the mental
processes that facilitate symbol
connection.
 COGNITIVISM
Cognitive development
focuses on the mental activities
in which a person engages in
perception, categorization,
understanding, inference
drawing, logical reasoning,
problem solving, imagination,
and memory.
 PIAGET, BLOOM, BRUNER,
AUSUBEL :
1.Piaget,
2.Bloom,
3.Bruner, and
4. Ausubel
Each of these psychologists
focused on different cognitive
conditions that impact on learning
 JEAN PIAGET :
Jean Piaget
Constructed models of child development and the
learning process.
Identified 4 developmental stages and the cognitive
processes associated with each of them.
Developmental Stages :
1. Sensory-motor - understands his environment
through the basic senses
2. Intuitive /Pre-operational - Thoughts more flexible,
memory and imagination begin to play a part in
learning, capable of more creativity
3. Concrete Operational Can go beyond the basic
information given, but still dependent on concrete
material and examples to support reasoning.
4. Formal Operational Abstract reasoning becomes
increasingly possible
 SOME TERMS..
Accommodation :
The process by which we modify what we already
know, to take into account the new information

Assimilation :
The process by which new knowledge is changed /
modified / merged in our minds to fit into what we
already know.

Equilibration :
The balance between what is known and what is
currently being processed, mastery of the new material.
 JEROME BRUNER :

Development of conceptual understanding, cognitive

skills and learning strategies rather than the
acquisition of knowledge
Bruners Focus :
Teaching Approach - Learners should be encouraged
to discover solutions via appropriate tasks which
require the application of relevant critical thinking
skills
Bruner Modes of Thinking :
Extended aspects of Piagets theory.
He identified three ways in which learners process
information
 JEROME BRUNER :

Enactive Level learning takes place via

direct manipulation of objects and
materials
Iconic Level Objects are represented
by visual images and are recognized for
what they represent
Symbolic Level Learning can take
place using symbols, objects and mental
images. Language is used to represent
thoughts and experiences
 COGNITIVISM..
Blooms Taxonomy :
Blooms Taxonomy Identifies and
describes, in hierarchical order, the
cognitive processes involved in learning
David Ausubel :
Stressed the importance of active
mental participation in meaningful
learning tasks. Learning must be
meaningful to be effective and permanent
Cognitive Learning

Insight Learningaha!!
Sudden understanding of a Latent Learning
problem that implies the Hidden learning that exists
solution without behavioral signs

Cognitive Maps

Mental Image of a
three-dimensional
space that an
organism has
navigated

2012 John Wiley &

Sons, Inc. All rights
reserved.
 Observational Learning

Observational Learning
Learning new behaviors or information by watching
and imitating others (also know as social learning or
modeling)
2012 John Wiley &
Sons, Inc. All rights
reserved.
 Cognitivism in the
Classroom
Inquiry-oriented
projects
Opportunities for
the testing of
hypotheses
Curiosity
encouraged
Staged scaffolding
Critiques of Cognitivism
Like Behaviorism, knowledge itself is
given and absolute
Input Process Output model is
mechanistic and deterministic
Does not account enough for
individuality
Little emphasis on affective
characteristics
LEARNING THEORY

3. Social Learning theory

 Social Learning Theory
(SLT)
Grew out of Cognitivism
A. Bandura (1973)
Learning takes place through
observation and sensorial
experiences
Imitation is the sincerest form of
flattery
SLT is the basis of the movement
against violence in media & video
Social Learning Theory-Albert Bandura

Social learning theory says that people

learn social behaviors mainly through
observation and cognitive processing of
information, rather than through direct
experience.

Learning the consequences of an action by

observing its consequences for someone
else is known as vicarious conditioning.
 Social Learning Theory-Albert
Bandura

Learning From Models -

1. Attend to pertinent clues
2. Code for memory (store a visual
image)
3. Retain in memory
4. Accurately reproduce the
observed activity
5. Possess sufficient motivation to
apply new learning
 Social Learning Theory
Research indicates that the following
factors influence the strength of
learning from models:

1. How much power the model seems to

have
2. How capable the model seems to be
3. How nurturing (caring) the model seems
to be
4. How similar the learner perceives self
and model
5. How many models the learner observes
 Social Learning Theory

Four interrelated processes

establish and strengthen
identification with the model:

1. Children want to be like the

model
2. Children believe they are like
the model
3. Children experience emotions
like those the model is
feeling.
4. Children act like the model.
 Social Learning Theory

Through identification, children

come to believe they have the
same characteristics as the
model.
;When they identify with a nurturant and
competent model, children feel pleased
and proud.
;When they identify with an inadequate
model, children feel unhappy and
insecure.
 Children Can Learn Aggressive Behavior through
Observation

Bobo doll studies: the first set of

experiments demonstrating the
power of observational learning in
eliciting aggression.

Research demonstrates that

children are less likely to imitate
the actions of punished aggressors.
 Children Can Learn Aggressive Behavior through
Observation

Bandura believes children observe and learn

aggression through many avenues, but the three
principal ones are:

Families:
where adults use violence

Communities:
where aggression is considered to be a sign of manhood,
especially among males

Media:
principally television and the movies
Children Can Learn Aggressive Behavior
through Observation

Research indicates that aggressive

behavior in children is
significantly reduced when they
spend less time in watching
violent television shows and
playing violent video games.
Critiques of Social Learning Theory

Does not take into account individuality,

context, and experience as mediating
factors
Suggests students learn best as passive
receivers of sensory stimuli, as opposed
to being active learners
Emotions and motivation not considered
important or connected to learning
LEARNING THEORY

4. Social Constructivism
.
What is Social
Constructivism?

A philosophy of
learning founded
.
on the premise
that, by reflecting
on our
experiences, we
construct our own
understanding.
 Social Constructivism

Grew out of and in response to Cognitivism,

framed around metacognition
Knowledge is actively constructed
Learning is
A search for meaning by the learner
Contextualized
An inherently social activity
Dialogic and recursive
The responsibility of the learner

Lev Vygotsky
Social Learning
Zone of Proximal Development
SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISM

The purpose of
learning is for an Learning is a search
individual to for meaning.
construct his or her Learning must start
own meaning, not with the issues
just memorize the around which
"right" answers. students are
actively trying to
construct meaning.
 Social Constructivism in the
Classroom

Journaling
Experiential
activities
Personal focus
Collaborative &
cooperative
learning
LEARNING THEORY

5. MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES
 Multiple Intelligences (MI)
Grew out of Constructivism, framed around
metacognition
H. Gardner (1983 to present)
All people are born with eight intelligences:

Enables students to leverage their

strengths and purposefully target and
develop their weaknesses
 7 Intelligences by Dr. Howard
Gardner
1. Linguistic
2. Logical/ Mathematical
3. Spatial
4. Bodily/ Kinesthetic
5. Musical
6. Interpersonal
7. Intrapersonal

Naturalistic intelligence added as 8th intelligence

later.
 .
If you have strong linguistic intelligence you
might learn better by
Reading, Memorizing, Playing word games

If you have strong logical-mathematical intelligence

you might learn better by
Recording information systematically, Analyzing data, Playing
strategy games (Chess, Checkers)
If you have strong spatial intelligence you might
learn better by
Studying pictures, Using visual, tangible aids, Watching videos
If you have strong bodily-kinesthetic intelligence you
might learn better by
Doing role plays, Constructing physical examples,
If you have strong musical intelligence you might learn
better by,
Listening to recordings, Mentally repeating information , Reading aloud

If you have strong interpersonal intelligence you might

learn better by
Studying in groups Relating personal experiences Comparing information
with others

If you have strong intrapersonal intelligence you might

learn better by
Avoiding distractions Establishing personal goals Working alone Relating
personal experiences

If you have strong naturalistic intelligence you might

learn better by
Studying outside Learning in the presence of plants & pets
Observing natural phenomenon
 MI in the Classroom

Delivery of
instruction via
multiple mediums
Student-centered
classroom
Authentic
Assessment
Self-directed learning
 Critiques of MI
Lack of quantifiable evidence that MI
exist
Lack of evidence that use of MI as a
curricular and methodological
approach has any discernable impact
on learning
Suggestive of a departure from core
curricula and standards
LEARNING THEORY

6. BRAIN BASED LEARNING

 What is Brain Based
Learning?
Combining
emotional, factual
and skill knowledge
into a cognitive tool.
Brain-Based Learning (BBL)
Grew out of Neuroscience &
Constructivism
D. Souza, N. Caine & G. Caine, E.
Jensen (1980s to present)
How the Brain Determines
Whats Important
Emotion and attention are
the PRINCIPAL processes of
the brain
Primary emotions - innate
responses
Assemble life-saving behaviors
quickly
Secondary emotions - also
innate reactions
Enjoyment, pleasure
 Twelve Basic Principles
Related to Learning
1. Brain is a parallel processor
2. Learning engages the entire physiology
3. Learning is developmental
4. Each brain is unique
5. Every brain perceives and creates parts
and wholes simultaneously
6. Learning always involves conscious and
unconscious processes
7. The search for meaning is innate
8. Emotions are critical to learning
9. Learning is enhanced by challenge and
inhibited by threat
10. The search for meaning occurs through
patterning
11. We can organize memory in different
ways
12. The brain is a social brain
 BBL in the Classroom
OPPORTUNITIES FOR GROUP
LEARNING

REGULAR ENVIRONMENTAL
CHANGES

A MULTI-SENSORY
ENVIRONMENT

OPPORTUNITIES FOR SELF-

EXPRESSION AND MAKING
PERSONAL CONNECTIONS
TO CONTENT

COMMUNITY-BASED
LEARNING
 Critiques of BBL

Research conducted by
neuroscientists, not teachers &
educational researchers
Lack of understanding of the brain
itself makes brain-based learning
questionable
Individual principles have been
scientifically questioned
CLINICAL APPLICATIONS
OF LEARNING THEORIES
.
Behavioral therapists classify abnormal
behavior as excesses or deficits
Excess:
behavior occurs more
strongly/frequently and causes problems
for the person (e.g., aggression)
Deficit:
behavior does not occur
strongly/frequently enough and causes
problems (e.g., social skills--often a
problem in schizophrenia or social anxiety
disorder)
3 WAYS IN WHICH BEHAVIORAL AND
OTHER
THERAPIES DIFFER:
1. behavior therapy is more directive
2. goals of behavioral therapy are more
circumscribed (behavior change rather
than reconstruction of personality)
3. behavior therapy has empirical
underpinnings (intuitive, since behaviors
and the laws that govern them are more
readily observable than personality
characteristics)
Behavioral therapy techniques based
upon
classical conditioning
Systematic desensitization
(counterconditioning):
pair the feared object with relaxation
(e.g., muscle relaxation)
Flooding:
client exposed to feared object without
being able to escape; eventually, response
is diminished--client cannot maintain it
Implosive therapy:
more psychodynamic than flooding; client exposed
to feared object in addition to images based on
psychodynamic conflicts.
Aversive conditioning:
a stimulus previously associated with an undesired
behavior is paired with an aversive stimulus (often
used for paraphilias)

Systematic desensitization, flooding, and

implosive therapy are often used with anxiety
disorders

Therapists (& clients) tend to prefer systematic

desensitization because it does not generate as
much distress and it is more practical
Behavioral therapy techniques based upon
operant, or instrumental conditioning

Token economy:
Clients get tokens for good behavior;
They can exchange them for desired things;
Often used in group/institutional settings;
Parents do this with stickers
Shaping:
Systematic reinforcement of successive approximations
to a desired behavior;
Often used to treat speech problems in autistic children.
Stimulus control:
Identify the event that triggers unwanted behavior;
change that stimulus
Behavioral therapy techniques
based upon
social learning;
Modeling:
Often used in assertiveness training.

Behavioral therapy is very often

paired
with cognitive therapy (CBT).
 Systematic Desensitization
Decreasing your level of
anxiety or fear very
gently and gradually
First suggested by
Joseph Wolpe
Used in treatment of
anxiety disorders, and
more specifically,
phobias
A behavior therapy
used to unlearn
ineffective behavior
SYSTEMATIC DESENSITIZATION:
COMPONENTS

Relaxation training
Anxiety hierarchy
Desensitization proper
 Theoretical Propositions
Research began as
study of reduction of
fear in rats
Photo of cat presented
during feeding
Reciprocal inhibition
Wolpe used these ideas
to try to treat human
anxiety in his 1961
study
The systematic
desensitization treatment
of neuroses
39 test subjects, totaling
65 phobias
 Results
39 cases reported in Wolpes article
Success of therapy judged by patients own reports and
by occasional direct observation
Desensitization process rate of success determined as:
Completely successful (freedom from phobic
reactions)
Partially successful (phobic reactions of 20% or less
of original strength)
Unsuccessful
Out of the 39 cases, total of 68 phobias treated
62 of the phobias (35 patients) were completely or
partially successful (91% success rate)
The other 9% unsuccessful were mostly due to special
problems that did not allow for proper treatment.
These problems included inability to imagine the
situations presented in the hierarchy
Average number of sessions was 12.3
 Step One: Relaxation
Training
The first five to six sessions with therapist deal not
with the phobia, but working to achieve total
relaxation
Progressive form of muscle relaxation is used
Process involves tensing and relaxing various
groups of muscles throughout the body until deep
state of relaxation achieved
After training, the patient is able to achieve total
relaxation whenever they want.

There are two methods of relaxation

1. Progressive Muscular Relaxation
2. Applied relaxation.
Relaxation is the direct negative
of nervous excitement. It is the
absence of nerve-muscle impulse.

Edmund Jacobson, M.D.

 Step One: Relaxation Training
Progressive Muscular Relaxation
EDMUND JACOBSON was a U.S.physician who
noticed that all his patients with illness showed
chronic muscle tension.
He theorized that if muscle tension was
significantly decreased, the chance for illness
would diminish.
The bodys muscles respond to thoughts of
perceived threats with tension or contraction.
Muscular tension is believed to be the most
common symptom of stress, and
can lead to:
stiffness, pain, discomfort, distorted and
disaligned posture, and joint stability.
 Progressive Muscular Relaxation

The building blocks involved in muscular contraction are,

1. A motor end unit.
2. A motor nerve fiber.
3. A skeletal muscle fiber.
4. An action potential.
5. Neurotransmitters epi, nor epi, and Ach.
6. Muscle contraction.
Muscles can contract in one of three ways:
A.concentrical(shortening) B.eccentrical (lengthening)
isometrical(no visible change in length)
Muscle tension produced through the stress response is
primarily isometric.
Over time, muscles contracted isometrically can begin to show
signs of shortening.
Progressive Muscular Relaxation
(continued)

Progressive muscular relaxation is a systematic

approach to relieving muscle tension.
Based on the work of Edmund Jacobson, PMR is a
simple technique used to promote rest and
relaxation by systematically tensing and relaxing
the bodys musculature, from feet to the head.
Benefits of PMR
Decreases muscle tension
As body relaxes, so does the mind
People who use PMR have less health issues
 Steps to Initiate PMR
Find a comfortable position.
Begin by monitoring your breathing.
Inhale when you contract each
muscle group, exhale when you relax
each muscle group.
Focus your concentration on each
muscle group as you work various
regions of your body.
 Typical Phase for Each Muscle
Group Using PMR

First contraction: 100% @ 510

seconds
release and relax (exhale)
compare relaxation to contraction
Second contraction: 50% @ 510
seconds
release and relax (exhale)
compare relaxation to contraction
Third contraction: 510% @ 510
seconds
release and relax (exhale)
Progressive Muscular Relaxation

Research indicates that anger elicits the greatest

response of unconscious muscle tension.
Progressive Muscular Relaxation is one of the best
techniques to deal with symptoms of anger.
Best Application of PMR;
Excellent way to reduce muscle tension
Thought to be beneficial for people who quit
smoking
Avoid using in areas with chronic pain
Avoid using if you have hypertension
 APPLIED RELAXATION
Goldfried (1971)
Goldfried (1971) who, recognizing the extent of the
gulf between relaxation in the therapeutic
environment and relaxation in the stressful
situation, focused expressly on the issue of the
application of the skills.
He emphasized the need for,
;a portable and shortened form of progressive
relaxation;
;a form which could be used to defuse anxiety as
it occurred,
;and one, which the individual could use as a
general coping skill in everyday life.
In so doing, he gave the individual a new role,
 REFERENCE FOR APPLIED
RELAXATION..
Behav. Res. Ther. Vol. 25, No. 5, pp. 397-409, 1987
Printed in Great Britain
0005-7967/87 $3.00 + 0.00
Pergamon Journals, Ltd
Address for correspondence: Dr Lars-Goran Ost,
Psychiatric Research Center, Ulleraker Hospital, S-
750 17 Uppsala, Sweden.
Article title;
APPLIED RELAXATION: DESCRIPTION OF A
COPING TECHNIQUE AND REVIEW OF
CONTROLLED STUDIES
 APPLIED RELAXATION
LARS GORAN OST

sts (1987) applied relaxation method is a recent version of Goldfrieds

approach.
Using progressive relaxation as a core technique, the method teaches the
individual to relax in successively shorter periods and to transfer these
relaxation effects to everyday situations. Thus the individual is equipped
with a strategy to control his reactions to stressful events as they occur.
The method consists of six components, in each of which a
particular aspect of relaxation is taught:

Progressive relaxation
Release-Only Relaxation
cue-controlled (conditioned) relaxation
differential relaxation
rapid relaxation
application training.
 Applied relaxation
1.PROGRESSIVE RELAXATION
As in PMR.
For 15 to 20 minutes.
First session;
Begins with tenserelease exercises for the hand
and fore arm.
Session two;
starts with a review of the work done in the first
session followed by tenserelease exercises for
the chest, stomach, back, legs and feet.
 Applied relaxation
2.RELEASE-ONLY
In this phase,
The tension part of the sequence is eliminated, leaving just the
release part.
As a result, the relaxed state can be achieved in less time than
when working with the full sequence; 57 minutes are suggested.
The training session begins with breathing instructions, followed
by a scanning of all the voluntary muscles starting with the head
and working down to the toes.
The sequence is terminated in the same way as for the first
component.
Again, the homework assignment is a twice- daily practice, the
trainee being asked to record afterwards the level of relaxation
achieved and how long it took to reach it
 Applied relaxation

3.CUE-CONTROLLED RELAXATION
This component of the training focuses on the breathing. It
begins by asking the trainee to relax himself by employing the
release-only method of progressive relaxation
Once relaxed, he is asked to begin silently to recite the word
relax; he recites it once each time he breathes out.
Following many repetitions, an association is built up between the
word and the relaxed state whereby the word alone becomes
capable of inducing a measure of relaxation.
The word has thus become a cue. The stronger the association,
the greater the power of the cue word.
Expressed in other terms, a conditioning process has been
set up, as a result of which the trainee feels himself
relaxed whenever he thinks the word relax.
 Applied relaxation
4. DIFFERENTIAL RELAXATION
The application of those skills now begins.
focuses on controlling the levels of muscle
tension while the individual is engaged in some
activity.
Since an ability to recognize muscle tension at its
varying levels is essential for developing this skill,
differential relaxation is presented after the individual
has been trained in progressive relaxation.
Two sessions of tuition are indicated,
session 1; dealing with sitting
session 2; dealing with standing activities.
Both sessions begin with a revision of
cue- controlled relaxation.
 Applied relaxation

5. RAPID RELAXATION
;Designed to reduce still further the time it takes to
become relaxed;
;it also gives the trainee opportunity to practise in
everyday situations.
First, the trainees environment is arranged so that a
regularly used appliance acts as a cue to relax; for
example, the wristwatch or the telephone are marked with
a coloured dot which reminds the individual to relax
whenever he sees it.
Every time he looks at his watch or makes a telephone call
he is reminded to release tension. This means that stress is
in general held at low levels in the everyday setting.
 Applied relaxation

6. Application training;
; Applying relaxation skills to
situations of
potential stress is the subject of this
phase. ;The trainee is provided with a wide
range of opportunities in which to use
the techniques he has learned.
;Anxiety-provoking situations should,
however, be presented at a level of
challenge which the trainee can cope with.
 Session
Progressive
1
Relaxation
15 20 mins

Release-Only 2
Relaxation
5 7 mins

Cue-Controlled 3
Relaxation
2 3 mins

Differential
Relaxation 4
60 90 secs

Rapid Relaxation 5
20 30 secs

APPLICATION 6
TRAINING
Figure 1. The different components of applied relaxation
with approximate time to get relaxed at various stages IM
 Step Two: Construction of an
Anxiety Hierarchy
Develop a list, with therapist, of
anxiety producing situations or
scenes
Begin with a situation that is slightly
uncomfortably .
Continue to list up to the most
frightening situations,
List can have anywhere from around
five to 20 items on the list.
 Anxiety Hierarchy
Series of statements about a feared
situation
Ordered from least to most anxiety
provoking
Types of Hierarchies;
Spatial-temporal- items on the
hierarchy get physically closer or get
closer in terms of time
Thematic - Items on the hierarchy
share a basic theme
 Spatial-temporal
hierarchy
A temporal hierarchy for a public speaking
phobia:
Someone asks you to give a speech in two
months
Writing the speech a month before
Rehearsing the speech a week before
The morning of the speech
Reciting the speech while dressing
Approaching the auditorium
Walking up to the podium
Giving the speech
 A spatial hierarchy for a dog
phobia
Seeing a dog go by in a car
Seeing a dog in a yard on a leash and
behind a fence
Dog poking nose through the fence
Passing a leashed dog across the
street
Passing a leashed dog on same side
of street
Example Hierarchy: Claustrophobia

1. Reading of miners trapped

2. Having polish on fingernails with no way to
remove it
3. Being told someone is in jail
4. Having a tight ring on finger
5. On a journey by train
6. Traveling in an elevator with an operator
7. Traveling alone in an elevator
8. Passing through a tunnel on a train
9. Being locked in a room
10. Being stuck in an elevator
 Step Three:
Desensitization
The actual unlearning
No direct contact with the feared situation is necessary
First:
Place yourself in a state of deep relaxation
Second:
the therapist begins walking through your hierarchy
You imagine the situation and try to remain calm
If you remain relaxed, you continue through the hierarchy
If you experience anxiety at any time, you are instructed to
raise your index finger
If anxiety occurs the therapist stops, you return to full
relaxation, and the description begins at a number lower on
the hierarchy
The process continues until the patient is able to remain relaxed
throughout the whole hierarchy
 Criticisms
Mainly people from psychoanalytic camp
Claimed that these methods were only treating the
symptoms and not the underlying causes of anxiety
They believed other symptoms would appear to
replace the ones treated
BUT
Wolpe followed up that 25 of the 35
patients who received successful
desensitization had no reports of relapse or
new phobias for the four years he followed up
the patients
 Recent Applications
After publication, Wolpes methods
are considered treatment of choice
for anxiety disorders, especially
phobias
Paul (1969): Public speaking
phobia
Practice speech, split into
treatment groups
Systematic desensitization
proved to be most successful
Fredrickson (2000)
Use of reciprocal inhibition to
cancel out negative thoughts
with positive ones
Zettle (2003)
Math phobia: progressive
relaxation, math hierarchy
11 out of 12 successful
 REFERENCES
CTP
OTP
PSYCHOLOGY BY
1. MORGAN
2. WEYNE
WEYTEN
3. ATKINSON
 THANKS
FOR YOUR
KIND
PATIENCE..