Theory of Structures

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 INTRODUCTION
Text Book: Structural Analysis 6th
Edition by R. C. Hibbeler
Reference Books:
Any Book on Structural Analysis

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 What is a Structure?
A structure is a system of connected parts used to
support a load.

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 Elements/Parts of a Structure
Some of common elements from which structures
are composed are as follows:

Tie Rods

Structural members subjected to a tensile force are

often referred to as tie rods or bracing struts.

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Beams
Beams are usually straight horizontal members
used primarily to carry vertical loads.

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Beams
When the cross-section varies the beam is referred
to as tapered or hunched.

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Beams
Beam cross-sections may also be built-up by
adding plates to their top and bottom. Such
sections are known as built-up sections.

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Plate Girder

When the span and loads are very large, cross-

sections are fabricated by using a large plate
for the web and welding or bolting plates to its
ends for flanges, known as plate girder.

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Columns

Members that are generally vertical and resist axial

compressive loads are referred to as columns.

Occasionally, columns are subjected to both an

axial load and a bending moment. These members
are referred to as beam-columns.

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Column Beam column
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Types of Structures

Trusses

Trusses are composed of slender straight members

connected at their ends by hinged connections in a
triangular fashion. The members are either in
uniform tension or compression.

When the span of a structure is large, and depth is

not an important criterion for design, a truss may
be selected.

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Cables and Arches
For Long span distances, cables and arches can be
used.

Cables are usually flexible and carry their loads in

tension.

Arch supports their loads in compression.

Arches are frequently used in bridge structures,

dome roofs, and for openings in masonry walls.

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Frames
Frames are normally used in buildings.

They are composed of beams and columns

connected by pinned or fixed ends.

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Surface/shell Structures

These are made from materials having a very

small thickness compared to its other dimensions.

These structures are difficult to analyze, due to

three dimensional geometry of their surface.

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Loads
The loads on a structures are determined after
finding the structural dimensions.

The loads define the type of structure to be

constructed.

Once the structural form has been decided, the

actual design begins.

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Types of Loads

Dead Loads
Live Loads
Bridge Loads
Wind Loads
Earthquake Loads
Hydrostatic and Soil Pressure
Other Natural Loads

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 What is Structural Analysis?
The prediction of the performance of a structure
under prescribed loads and/or other external effects.

The performance characteristics are:

Stresses i.e. axial force, shear force and

bending moment
Deflections
Support Reactions

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What is Structural Design?
Knowing the expected loads and span lengths
of the members, finding the required material
properties and cross-sectional dimensions is
called Design of Structure.

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Principle of Superposition

The total displacement or internal loading

(stress) at a point in a structure subjected to
several external loadings can be determined
by adding together the displacements or
internal loadings (stress) caused by each of
the external loads acting separately.

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 Equations of Equilibrium
The structure or its member is in
equilibrium when it maintains a balance
of force and moment.

F 0
x F y 0 F z 0
M 0 x M y 0 M z 0

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Equations of Equilibrium
The principal load-carrying portions of most
structures lie in a single plane, and since the
loads are also coplanar, the above requirements
for equilibrium reduces to

F 0
x

F 0
y

M 0

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Internal Loadings
In general, the internal loadings acting at the cut section of
the member will consist of a normal force N, shear force V,
and bending moment M

M M V

N N
V

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Determinacy
When all the forces in a structure can be determined
from the equilibrium equations, the structure is
referred to as statically determinate.

When the unknown forces in a structure are more than

the available equilibrium equations, that structure is
known as statically indeterminate

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Determinacy
For a coplanar structure there are at most three
equilibrium equations for each part.

If there is a total of n parts and r force and

moment reaction components, we have

r = 3n statically determinate

r > 3n statically indeterminate

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Stability
A structure will be geometrically unstable (it will
move slightly or collapse) if there are fewer
reactive forces than equations of equilibrium or
there are enough reactions and instability will
occur if the lines of action of reactive forces
intersect at a common point or are parallel to one
another.

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 Stability
r < 3n unstable

r 3n unstable if member reactions are

concurrent or parallel or some of the
components form a collapsible mechanism
otherwise stable.

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Statically Indeterminate Structures
When the unknown forces in a structure are more
than the available equilibrium equations, that
structure is known as statically indeterminate.

Most of the structures designed today are statically

indeterminate.

This indeterminacy may be due to the added supports

or members, or by the general form of the structure

For example, reinforced concrete buildings are

almost always statically indeterminate. 41
Advantages of SIS
Smaller Stresses
Greater Stiffness
Redundancies
P
PL
M max
8
P
PL
M max
4

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Advantages of SIS
Smaller Stresses
Greater Stiffness
Redundancies
w

wL4
max
384 EI
w

5wL4
max 43
384 EI
Advantages of SIS
Smaller Stresses
Greater Stiffness
Redundancies
Internal hinge

Statically determinate beam

Statically unstable 44
Advantages of SIS
Smaller Stresses
Greater Stiffness
Redundancies
Internal hinge

Statically indeterminate beam

Statically stable
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Disadvantages of SIS
Stress due to Support Settlement
Stress due to Temperature Changes and
Fabrication Errors

Internal hinge

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Statically determinate beam
Disadvantages of SIS
Stress due to Support Settlement
Stress due to Temperature Changes and
Fabrication Errors

Statically indeterminate beam

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Disadvantages of SIS
Stress due to Support Settlement
Stress due to Temperature Changes
and Fabrication Errors

Statically determinate beam

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Disadvantages of SIS
Stress due to Support Settlement
Stress due to Temperature Changes and
Fabrication Errors

Statically indeterminate beam

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Free Body Diagram
Simplified picture of the structure, isolated from its
supports, on which are shown all the external forces
that act on the structure.

These forces include the applied loads and the

reactions that the supports exert on structure.

FREE BODY DIAGRAM

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Types of Supports and Restraints

Roller Support Fixed Support

Simple Support
Hinge Support

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