This lecture was conducted during the Nephrology

Unit Grand Ground by a

Sub-intern under Nephrology Division, Department
of Medicine
.in King Saud University
Nephrology Division is NOT responsible for the
content of the presentation for it is intended for
.learning and /or education purpose only
 By
Abdulaziz Saleh Alghamdi
427100162
Bilirubin Metabolism
- Bilirubin breakdown of mature RBCs in the RES.
- 15% of bilirubin comes from the catabolism of other haem-
containing proteins, such as myoglobin.
- 250 300 mg of bilirubin are produced daily.
- Biliverdin is formed from the haem and this is reduced to
form bilirubin.
- The bilirubin produced is unconjugated and is transported to
the liver attached to albumen.
 Jaundice is a common feature of both acute
and chronic liver diseases as well as
disorders of a non-hepatic origin.
Jaundice can be recognized clinically at
serum bilirubin levels of 3mg/dl or more.
Besides a rise in the bilirubin level,
yellowness of the skin can be due to
carotenoderma, use of drug quinacrine &
excessive exposure to phenols.
 Jaundice can occur in four different ways:
1- Increased bilirubin load as in
haemolysis.
2- Disturbance in the hepatic uptake &
transport
of bilirubin within the hepatocytes
3- Defects in conjugation.
4- Defects in the excretion of conjugated
bilirubin across the canalicular cell
membrane or an obstruction of the large
biliary channels.
 History:

- The onset of Jaundice in viral hepatitis is

associated with a prodrome of ANV, malaise &
myalgia.
- The onset of cholestasis is insidious, it is
associated with pruritus.
- A history of fever with rigors, Rt upper abd. pain
or a past history of biliary surgery suggest
cholangitis.
- Dark urine & pale stool exclude the possibility of
haemolytic jaundice.
- A history of multiple sex partners, travel, ethanol
intake, drugs, bl. transfusion, needlestick
exposure & tattooing is also important.
- Recent surgery with subsequent jaundice
after one week may suggest halothane
toxicity.
- Previous biliary surgery with subsequent
jaundice may suggest stricture, residual
stones or hepatitis.
- A family history of jaundice or liver disease
suggests the possibility of hereditary
hyperbilirubinaemia or genetic disorder such
as Wilson disease.
The clinical assessment & basic biochemical
parameters lead to three broad subgroups of
patients:
1- Isolated elevation of s. bilirubin: when AST,
ALT & ALP levels are normal.
2- Hepatocellular jaundice: when the AST & ALT
levels are elevated out of proportion to the
ALP
levels.
3- Cholestatic jaundice: when the ALP level is
elevated out of proportion to the AST & ALT
levels.
Isolated elevation of serum Bilirubin
Unconjugated Hyperbilirubinaemia
* Increase bil. production (e.g. haemolysis,
resorptionof haematoma)
* Decrease hepatocellular uptake (e.g.
rifampcin)
* Decrease conjugation (Gilbert S, Crig.
Nagar S)
Conjugated Hyperbilirubinemia
* Dubin-Junson syndrome
* Roter syndrome
Hepatocellular Jaundice
Acute or subacute hepatocellular injury
Viral hepatitis, alcohol, drugs, ischemic hepatitis, Wilson's
disease, acute fatty liver of pregnancy

Chronic hepatocellular Disease:

Viral hepatitis, alcoholic, autoimmune hepatitis, Wilson dis.,
Haemochromatosis, NASH, alpha 1 antitrypsin deficiency.

Hepatic disorders with prominent cholestasis.

* Diffuse infiltrative disorders (e.g. granulomat dise. as TB,
sarcoidosis, lymphoma, drugs) Amyloidosis, malignancy.
* Inflammation of intrahepatic bile ductules (PBC), GVHD,
Drugs (chloropromazine)
* Miscellaneous e.g. use of oestrogen & steroids, TPN, bact.
Infection.
Obstruction of The bile duct
Benign
Choledocholithiasis, 1ry SC, AIDS, pancreatitis
Malignant
Carcinoma gallbladder, periampullary carcinoma,
cholangiocarcinoma, Cancer head of pancreas
Mechanism Type of Jaundice Cause of Jaundice
Isolated elevation Unconjugated * Bil. production (e.g. haemolysis, resorption
of serum Bilirubin Hyperbilirubinaemia of haematoma)
* Hepatocellular uptake (e.g. rifampcin)
* conjugation (e.g. Gilbert S, Crig. Nagar S)
Conjugated * Dubin-Junson sundrome
Hyperbilirubinemia * Roter syndrom
Hepatocellular Acute or subacute Viral hepatitis, alcohol, drugs, ischemic hepatiti
Jaundice hepatocellular injury Wilsons disease, acute fatty liver of pregnancy
Chronic hepatocellu Viral hepatitis, alcoholic, autoimmune hepatitis
disease. Haemochromatosis, Wilson dis., NASH, alpha
1 antitrypsin deficiency.
Hepatic disorders * Diffuse infiltrative disorders (e.g. granulomat
with prominent dise. As TB, sarcoidosis, lymphoma, drugs)
cholestasis. Amyloidosis, malignancy.
* Inflammation of intrahepatic bile ductules
(PBC), GVHD, Drugs (chloropromazine)
* Miscellaneous e.g. use of oestrogen &
steroids, TPN, bact. Infection.
Obstruction of Benign Choledocholithiasis, 1ry SC, AIDS, pancreatitis
The bile duct
Malignant Carcinoma gallblader, periampullary carcinoma
cholangiocarcinoma, Cancer head of pancreas
Physical Examination:
-Stigmata of CLD J. is hepatocellular in origin.
-High fever, right upper abd. tenderness cholangitis
& choledocholithiasis.
-Palpable abdominal mass Malignant obstructive J.
-Rt. upper abd. scar or palpable gallbladder Obst. J.
-Certain physical findings may suggest a particular liver
disease:
*Hyperpigmentation haemochromatosis.
*Xanthoma PBC.
*Kayser-Fleischer rings Wilson disease.
-A systemic illness should be excluded e.g.
distended jugular veins in constrictive
pericarditis or Rt. Heart F in patient with
hepatomegaly & ascites.
-Hard nodular liver 1ry or 2ry malignancy.
-Diffuse lymphadenopathy infectious
mononucleosis or lymphoma.
Laboratory, Radiological & Histological
Evaluation:
*Serum Biochemical Tests:
Bilirubin:
-The normal serum bilirubin is <1.5mg/dl of which
<0.5% is conjugated.
-In haemolysis or genetic disorders e.g. Gilbert synd., there is
unconjugated hyperbilirubinaemia (>90%).
-In hepatocellular j. >50% of bilirubin is conjugated.
-In obstructive j., the circulating bilirubin is mainly conj.
* The degree of elevation of s. bil., correlates poorly with
clinical severity.
* Unconjugated bil is not excreted in the urine & thus in
unconjugated hyperbilirubinaemia, bil. is absent in urine.
Serum Enzymes:
Enzymes raised in hepatocellular injury:
Aminotransferases include ALT (located in cytosol) &
AST (located in mitochondria & cytosol).
ALT is found mainly in liver while AST is also found in
other tissues such as skeletal & cardiac muscle.
ALT is more specific than AST in detecting liver dise.
AST & ALT are released following hepatocyte
necrosis.
A marked raise in transaminases > 1000 U/L, is seen
in AVH, ischaemic hepatitis & drug-induced liver
disease.
In alcoholic liver disease, the enzyme levels are
rarely
> 200-300 U/L, with AST:ALT ratio >2:1.
Enzymes raised in cholestasis:
Alkaline Phosphatase (ALP), gamma-
glutamyl transpeptidase (GGT) & 5-
nucleotidase (5NT).
ALP isoenzymes are also present in bone &
placenta.
Increase in ALP, GGT & 5NT
hepatobiliary origin.
GGT levels are often disproportionately
elevated in alcoholic liver disease.
Proteins:
Albumen:
Albumen is synthesized by liver & has a half-life
of 15-20 days.
Decreased level of albumen are seen in
advanced hepatic cirrhosis & signify severe
hepatic dysfunction.
S. albumen usually remain normal in acute
hepatitis; falling values in this setting imply an
unusual sever course
Globulins:
Non-specific diffuse elevation is common in CLD.
There is a disproportionate elevation of IgG in
autoimmune hepatitis, IgM in PBC & IgA in
alcoholic liver disease.
International normalized ratio (INR)
& Prothrombin time (PT):
INR/PT is a valuable index of the ability of
liver to synthesize vit. K-dependent clotting
factors.
An increasing INR/PT implies relatively severe
hepatocellular dysfunction.
The INR/PT may be deranged in cholestasis as
well, but this is due to the malabsorption of
vit. K & is rapidly corrected by parenteral
administration of vit K.
Other tests:
-Serological/replicative markers for specific
diagnosis of acute or chronic viral hepatitis.
-Antimitochondrial antibody (AMA) for PBC;
antinuclear factor (ANA), anti-smooth muscle
antibody (ASMA) & anti-liver kidney
microsome (LKM) antibody seen in
autoimmune hepatitis; alpha-fetoprotien,
which is raised in HCC & s. caeruloplasmin
for Wilson disease.
Imaging Procedures:
Radiological imaging is important for the
diagnosis of a focal liver mass or biliary
disease. However, imaging plays little role in
the evaluation of diffuse hepatocellular e.g.
hepatitis
Ultrasonography (US):
It is a valuable but operator-dependent
investigation.
It has sensitivity of 55-91% & specificity of
82-95% for biliary obstruction.
Although US may not detect stones in the
extrahepatic bile duct, which may be
obscured by overlying gas, it reliably
establishes the presence of a dilated bile
ducts
Ultrasonography (US): Cont

Beside it can differentiate intrahepatic from

extrahepatic cholestasis, US can also
detect the associated abnormalities such
as portal hypertension, focal lesions &
fatty liver.
Computerized Tomography (CT):
CT has a sensitivity of 63-96% & a specificity of
93-100% to detect biliary obstruction.
Non-calcified cholestrol gall stones can be easily
missed on CT because they may be isodense
with bile.
Endoscopic retrograde
cholangiopancreaticography
(ERCP):
ERCP not only permits direct visualization of the
biliary tree but also allows therapeutic
intervention e.g. removal of CBD stones or
biliary stenting. It is the gold standard test for
the evaluation of extrahepatic biliary disease
causing jaundice.
Percutaneous transhepatic
cholangiography: PTC
IN PTC, direct contrast visualization of the
biliary tree is obtained via a percutaneous
needle puncture of the liver. It is useful if
there is high biliary obstruction e.g. a tumour
at the bifurcation of the hepatic ducts.
It also permits therapeutic intervention such as
stent insertion to bypass a ductal malignancy.
Magnetic resonance
cholaniopancreaticography:
MRCP
MRCP is superior to US & CT in detecting
biliary obstruction. It has a sensitivity of
82-100% & a specificity of 92-98% to
detect biliary obstruction.
Liver Biopsy:
It has relatively low risk, it is needed in only
a minority of cases with hepatic
dysfunction.

Major indications include chronic hepatitis,

cirrhosis, unexplained liver enzyme
abnormalities, hepatosplenomegaly of
unknown aetiology, suspected infiltrative
disorder, suspected granulomatous
disease.
Liver Biopsy: Cont

Relative contraindications include a

tendency for clinical bleeding, INR>1.5 or
PT >3 sec above the control, severe
thrombocytopenia & marked ascites.

The risk of fatal haemorrhage in patients

undergoing LB is 0.4% if they have a
malignancy & 0.04% if they have non-
malignant disease.