CONNECTOR THEORY

FAILURE MODES AND

PRACTICAL
APPLICATION
Your Presenter:
Arnie Cobb
Product Manager
Distribution Connector Products
THE ENTIRE ELECTRICAL SYSTEM
And all the expensive equipment
.depend on the integrity of power connectors to
deliver valuable electric service,

and this wont cut it!

WHY DO YOU CHOOSE A PARTICULAR
CONNECTOR?
Based on Application

For Mechanical Strength

For Conductivity

Combination of Strength & Conductivity

Sometimes Best Compromise For Reliability
Choice Will Affect Installed Cost
MECHANICAL STRENGTH
Full Tension, ANSI Class 1 (mainly auto splices
& deadends)
Typically 95% of Conductor RBS
Some Cases 90% (guying products)
Partial Tension, ANSI Class 2 (bolted,
compression)
40% of Conductor RBS
Minimum Tension, ANSI Class 3 (jumpers, etc)
5% of Conductor RBS
NEW TENSION CLASS (Included in ANSI
C119.4, 2011)
NORMAL TENSION, ANSI Class 1A (mainly bolted
deadends)
60% of Conductor RBS
 CONDUCTIVITY, Bronze vs
Aluminum
Which is More Conductive ?

Bronze = 16.4% IACS

(typical cast 83600 cu alloy)

Aluminum = 37% IACS

(typical cast 356-T6)

Then why use Bronze?

Mechanical strength, Expansion/Contraction, Corrosion issues
PAD-TO-PAD CONNECTIONS ACTUAL
CONTACT ZONE
Actual contact zone is
concentrated at high
pressure, low resistance,
area close to bolt holes.
Only about 5% of pad surface
area.

Effective contact zone can

be increased (resistance
reduced) by using
conductive hardware.

The number of bolted holes

more significant than total
 HARDWARE

Conductive Hardware
Provides maximum conductivity
in single-metal connections. 2024-T4 Al Bolts
Aluminum or Bronze Hardware will Aluminum-to-Aluminum connections
have 4 5 times the conductivity of steel

Bronze Hardware
Copper & Bronze Connections
FAILURE MECHANISMS

Oxidation and
Corrosion
Creep and Stress
Relaxation
Thermal Expansion &
Ratcheting
 OXIDATION

4Al(s) + 3O2(g) 2Al2O3(s)

o Occurs in the presence of oxygen
o Forms a high-resistance coating on metallic
surface
o Oxides form immediately on copper and
aluminum
Thickness depends on temperature on copper
Oxide growth rate on aluminum depends on humidity and
temperature
Oxide growth is self-limiting as metal oxide coating covers
surface.
o Oxide coating protects metal structure from
further attack.
Good for structural metals
Bad for electrical connections. Acts as an insulator on
conductor.
OXIDATION - FACT or MYTH?

Do You Need To Scrub

New Conductor Prior To
Installation?

Does Copper Oxidize?

Are You Supposed To

Scrub Conductor Dry Or
Through Inhibitor?
 CORROSION A
BIMETALLIC ISSUE!

Refers to the deterioration of a metal in the

presence of water
Loss of electrons to the cathode metal
Generates the release of ions into the solution
Causes the release of material from the anode metal
Material with the more negative galvanic potential
corrodes
Aluminum corrodes in galvanic action with
copper
 CORROSION / OXIDATION
PREVENTION
Contact Sealants and Joint
Compounds
Seal out both water and air
Water out => No galvanic
corrosion
Air out => No oxidation of
contact surfaces including
conductor strands. Seals out
contaminates in polluted
atmospheres.
Must remain pliable over wide
temperature range
Synthetic types have highest
temperature stability
 CORROSION -
FACT or MYTH?
Does Corrosion Only
Happen with Bi-Metallic
Connections?
Which Connector On Top
(aluminum or bronze) &
Why?
Will Tin Plating Reduce
Corrosion Rate?
Do You Wire Brush Tin
Plated Connectors? Why
or Why Not?
 INHIBITORS -
Base Material TYPES
Petroleum Base
Original base material
Good product but will tend to break down at high
temperatures & evaporates leaving a dry mass
Non Petroleum Base (Veg Oil, Synthetic)
Usually more stable at higher temperatures
Will not harm rubber gloves or cable polymeric materials
Grit Type
Non Gritted
For use on Grooves/Bolted & Pads
Non Conductive Grit
For use on Compression only
Grit usually made from Silicon Oxide which is an Insulator
Grit helps improve gripping strength
Can cause threaded fasteners to gall
Conductive Grit
For use on Compression, Grooves (away from bolt
threads), & Pads
Has a micro grit that will not cause arc points like non-conductive grit
varieties on grooves and pads
Grit helps improve gripping strength as well as conductivity
 CREEP AND STRESS
RELAXATION
Applied Mechanical Stress
from Clamping force
Material may creep
(elongate) and eventually
fail.
Applied stress should be
less than the yield strength Approximate Temperatures at Which
Creep Becomes Pronounced
of material. Temperature
Creep is Plastic Deformation,Metal degrees C
Aluminum Alloys 200
Intensified at High Titanium Alloys
Low-alloy Steels
325
375
Temperatures High-temperature Steels 550
Nickel and Cobalt superalloys 650
Reduction of residual Refractory Metals (Tungsten, Molybdenum) 1,000

contact pressure over time.

Source: Askland, Donald, The Science and Engineering of Materials
THERMAL
EXPANSION AND
THERMAL
RATCHETING
Thermal Expansion
Material Coefficient (oC-1)
-5
Aluminum 2.5 x 10
-5
Copper 1.7 x 10
-5
Stainless Steel 1.1 x 10

Metals expand when exposed to

heat.
Different metals have different
rates thermal expansion.
Thermal ratcheting
Repeated process of expansion
and contraction
From changes in temperature due
to current load cycling.
 BELLEVILLE WASHERS

A Properly Sized / Designed Belleville Washer balances the Clamping Force

of the Bolt, Which in our case is approximately 4400 Lbf .

Split Ring Lock Washers compress at only about 350 Lbf

THERMAL RATCHETING
FACT or MYTH?

Are Set Screws In Current

Path Susceptible to Thermal
Ratcheting?

Can You Over Tighten a

Belleville Washer?
A LEADING FAILURE WE SEE ON
RETURNED GOODS
OVER
TORQU
E

Is over torque worse than over

torque?
 BOLT ELONGATION
Excessive Torque will exceed yield strength and accelerate creep
ultimately providing less clamping force.

Cross Section of -13 Bolt

2024-T4 Aluminum Bolts

43 KSI Yield @ 50C = 6098 lb!
Reused Bolts - Clamping
Force Loss
AUTOMATICS FAILURE
MODES
 SPLICE INSTALLATION - FACT or
MYTH?
How close together should splices
be installed?

To each other? To a terminating

device?

(auto & compression)

See anything
wrong with
these
pictures?
 WHAT DOES ANSI SAYS ON THE
SUBJECT?
For Mechanical Testing of Deadends, Splices,
Compression
Basically All Mechanical Connectors
 OUR RECOMMENDATIONS

No closer than ANSI testing procedure

specifications for exposed conductor
length.
A good Rule of Thumb is:
No closer than 3X the length of the splice
for 4/0 and smaller conductor.
Example: Splice for #2 conductor is 12
long. Therefore no closer than 3 feet.
If possible, the longer the distance the
better.
When ANSI test procedure is exposed
conductor length is longer than rule of
thumb, ANSI rules apply.
Minimum tension requirement of 15% or greater
(Competitors and Linemans Handbook agree)
Splices in slack span (less than 10%) are not
recommended.
 AUTOMATIC SPLICES ON SLACK
Should SPAN
automatic
splices be
installed on
slack span?

See anything
wrong with
these pictures?
 REVIEW
Aluminum conductor should be wire brushed.
Formally recommended through inhibitor, now okay dry
Inhibit, Inhibit, Inhibit
Non Gritted - For Use On Grooves/Bolted & Pads
Non Conductive Grit For Use On Compression Only
Conductive Grit - For Use On Compression, Grooves (away from bolt
threads), & Pads
Torque Is An Issue. Dont Over-Torque!
Bi-metallic Connections Aluminum On Top
Remember Copper Salts
Do Not Wire Brush Tin Plated Connectors.
Tin Plating Is Very Thin And Is Easily Scrubbed Off
Do Not Reuse hardware.
Do Not Use Automatics (Splices Or Deadends) On Slack Span.
Minimum Distance Between Splices = 3X The Length Of The
Splice or ANSI Spec
Questions?