Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
(Licence A)
LO1. Explain and understand the production
methods of electrical energy
2
The principle behind generation of electrical energy
and the main features of the different generating
plants used.
Electromagnetic Induction:
6
A loop rotating within a magnetic field
7
Brush and slip-ring arrangement
8
emf generated at various angles
9
At that instant a where the angle is , at which the field is cut,
is 0, and since the sine of 0 is zero, the generated voltage (from
e = Blvsin) will be zero.
When the loop is rotated to a position B (which is 90 to the lines
of flux), the two conductors will effectively be moving at right
angles to the field. At that instant, the generated emf will take a
maximum value (since the sine of 90 is unity).
At 180 deg from the starting position, the generated emf will
reduce back to zero, since the conductors are moving along the
flux lines (but in the direction
opposite to that at 0, as shown in C).
At 270 deg, the conductors will be moving perpendicular to the
flux lines (but in the direction opposite to that at 90). At this
point (D), a maximum generated emf will be produced.
Note that the emf generated at this instant is the opposite
polarity to that which was generated at 90. The relative
direction of motion (between
the conductors and flux lines) has now been reversed.
Since e = Blvsin, the generated emf will take a sinusoidal form. 10
nusoidal voltage produced by a rotating loop
11
onstruction of AC Generator (Alternator)
12
Main parts of the alternator,
obviously, consists of stator and rotor. But, the unlike other
machines, in most of the alternators, field exciters are rotating
and the armature coil is stationary.
13
Rotor: There are two types of rotor used in an AC generator /
alternator:
Salient and Cylindrical type
Salient pole type: Salient pole type rotor is used in low and
medium speed alternators.Construction of AC generatorof
salient pole type rotor is shown in the figure below. This type of
rotor consists of large number of projected poles (called salient
poles),
bolted on a magnetic
wheel. These poles are
also laminated to
Minimize the eddy
current losses.
Alternators featuring
This type of rotor are
large in diameters
and short in axial
14
length.
Cylindrical type: Cylindrical type rotors are used in high
speed alternators, especially in turbo alternators. This type of
rotor consists of a smooth and solid steel cylinder having slots
along its outer periphery. Field windings are placed in these
slots.
The DC supply is given to the rotor winding through the slip
rings and brushes arrangement.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tiKH
48EMgKE 15
DC generator
In contrast to the AC generator, in a DC generator the slip-rings
are replaced by a commutator shown in figure below. As shown,
the commutator is essentially a split ring which is also mounted
on but insulated from the rotating shaft. The brushes rub
against the commutator as shown above. The function of the
commutator is to convert the alternating current into a direct
current. This is done by the fact that when the rotating loop
passes through the vertical position and hence at the instant
that the current is about to change direction, the brushes make
contact with the other half of the split ring thereby keeping the
direction of the current unchanged. Note that a DC generator is
often referred to as a dynamo.
16
Commutator arrangement
d.c.-generated output
17
Improved d.c. generator construction
18
In practical generators, a coil comprising a large number of turns
of copper wire replaces the single-turn rotating loop. This
arrangement effectively increases the total length of the
conductor within the magnetic field and, as a result, also
increases the generated output voltage. The output voltage also
depends on the density of the magnetic flux through which the
current-carrying conductor passes; the denser the field, the
greater the output voltage will be.
19
Power generating plants
A power plant or a power generating station, is basically an
industrial location that is utilized for the generation and
distribution of electric power in mass scale, usually in the order
of several 100 Mega-watts. These are generally located at the
sub-urban regions or several kilometres away from the cities or
the load centres, because of its requisites like huge land and
water demand, along with several operating constraints like the
waste disposal etc. For this reason, a power generating station
has to not only take care of efficient generation but also the fact
that the power is transmitted efficiently over the entire
distance. And thats why, the transformer switch yard to
At the centre
regulate of it, however,
transmission voltagenearly all poweran
also becomes generating stations
integral part of
has power
the an AC generator
plant. or an alternator, which is basically a
rotating machine that is equipped to convert energy from the
mechanical domain (rotating turbine) into electrical domain by
creating relative motion between a magnetic field and the
conductors. The energy source harnessed to turn the generator
20
shaft varies widely, and is chiefly dependent on the type of fuel
Types of Power Generation
As mentioned above, depending on the type of fuel used, the
power generating stations as well as the types of power
generation are classified. Therefore the 3 major classifications
for power production in reasonably large scale are: Thermal
power generation.
Nuclear power generation.
Hydro-electric power generation.
24
Type of Where it is from Advantages Disadvantages
energy
Tidal The movement of Ideal for an Construction of
tides drives turbines. island such as the barrage is very
A tidal barrage (a UK. costly.
kind of dam) is built Potential to Only a few
across estuaries, generate a lot of estuaries are
forcing water through energy. suitable.
gaps. Tidal barrage Opposed by
In future underwater can double as a some
turbines may be bridge, and help environmental
possible out at sea prevent flooding. groups as having
and without dams. a negative
impact on
wildlife.
May reduce tidal
flow and impede
flow of sewage
out to sea.
28
29
30
The PN-junction as the basic building block of a solar
cell, and the photoelectric effect and the various
applications of solar panels
Semiconductors
Semiconductor materials are formed by changing the molecular
structure of an insulating material.
The crystalline structure of this base materials effectively
modified into one of two types of semiconductor:
1. with an increased number of electrons in the crystal structure
(N-type)
2. with a decreased number of electrons in the crystal structure
(P-type).
32
Silicon Lattice
The main point here is that a silicon atom has four electrons
which it can share in covalent bonds with its neighbours 33
The Doping of Semiconductors
34
P- and N- Type Semiconductors
35
PN-junction
Just after the two layers are joined together both sides are
electrically neutral but the p-type material has an abundance of
free holes and the n-type an abundance of electrons. Since the
concentration of free charges is high on both side a diffusion
current is set up (as shown by the heavy arrows) with
reference to the diagram holes diffuse from left to right and
electrons diffuse from right to left. This diffusion current is,
however, only of a temporary nature, since
at the junction excess charges tend to
accumulate excess electrons on the p-side
of the junction and excess holes on the
n-type of the junction. The result is that an
electric field is created which opposes any
further flow of current.
36
PN-junction
37
Generation of current in a PV cell
38
It is important to point out that in a photovoltaic cell the
direction of current is opposite to that in a normal pn-junction
under the influence of an outside source of emf. The reason is
that in a photovoltaic cell the free electron is created within the
depletion layer and the electric field in the region points in the
opposite direction to that required if an external electric field is
applied (as in the case of a normal pn diode).
39
40
41
The Photovoltaic Cell
There are two main types of silicon cells commonly sold; mono-
crystalline and polycrystalline. Mono-crystalline is slightly more
efficient and therefore is slightly more expensive. Both types
are very good.
o Mono-crystalline
As the name implies, these are cells that are grown from a
single crystal. The production methods are difficult and
expensive. These tend to be more efficient (more power in less
area) and more expensive.
o Multi-crystalline:
The production process allows multiple crystalline structures to
develop within the cell. It is easier to implement in a production
line. It is relatively cheaper than mono-crystalline at the
expense of lower efficiency.
o Thin-film:
Uses less silicon to develop the cell (hence the name thin film)
allowing for cheaper production costs (silicon is in high
demand). It tends to be less
expensive but has also lower efficiency. 43
The overall efficiency of the module will depend on the cell
efficiency and
placement within the module, and on the laminating materials
used.
44
The Photovoltaic Panel
45
Modern PV panels use a standard connector called MC4. These
are a 4th generation connector that allows easy interconnects
between PV panels. There is a POSITIVE and a NEGATIVE
connector, and lead for each from each panel. Hobbyists can
buy MC4s and put them together themselves.
46
A typical OFF-GRID Solar Photovoltaic system
Lets examine a case in which there are four 12V solar panels.
There are three main configurations possible:
12V system for 12V battery charging Place all four panels in
parallel
24V system for 24V battery charging Place two panels in
series and connect this set in parallel with an identical second
set of two panels in series
48V system for 48V battery charging Place all four panels in
series
47
48
Charge Controller.
A charge controllers job is to charge the battery bank but not
allow it to become overcharged. Overcharging a battery bank
can result in damage to the battery bank as well as introduce a
safety hazard.
49
A typical ON-GRID Solar PV system
52
53
An important drawback of grid connected PV systems is
islanding. Islanding occurs when a grid connected generator
continues to supply electricity to the grid even when the main
utility supply is not available. This can be dangerous to
personnel working on the utility distribution system as they can
have no knowledge that utility lines may still be powered.
Sometimes islanding is intentional incorporated in network in
which can a generator may be forced to island when the main
power is off in order to provide power to a locality or building.
However inverters intended to operate with PV systems are
required to have anti-islanding circuitry which cuts off the supply
when a situation of mains utility failure is detected.
54
Applications of PV panels:
61
The purpose of a battery is to store chemical energy and to
convert this chemical energy through the chemical reaction into
electrical energy when needed.
62
The term voltaic cell is defined as a combination of materials
used to convert chemical energy into electrical energy. A voltaic
or chemical cell consists of two electrodes made of different
types of metals or metallic compounds placed in an electrolyte
solution.
An electrode is a metallic compound, or metal, which has an
abundance of electrons (negative electrode -anode) or an
abundance of positive charges (positive electrode - cathode).
63
Types of Batteries
Primary Batteries
Primary batteries are non-rechargeable and disposable. The
electrochemical reactions in these batteries are non-reversible.
The materials in the electrodes are completely utilized and
therefore cannot regenerate electricity. Primary batteries are
often used when long periods of storage are required, as they
have a much lower discharge rate than secondary batteries.
Use of primary batteries is exemplified by smoke detectors,
flashlights, and most remote controls.
Secondary Batteries
Secondary batteriesare rechargeable. These batteries
undergo electrochemical reactions that can be readily reversed.
The chemical reactions that occur in secondary batteries are
reversible because the components that react are not
completely used up. Rechargeable batteries need an external
electrical source to recharge them after they have expended 64
Construction
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=wwFrRymr4iE
Leclanch Cell
A electrolytic cell also known as a dry cell that uses a moist
paste rather than a liquid as an electrolyte. Dry cells with a zinc
cup for an anode, a carbon rod for a cathode, and a paste made
of powdered carbon, Ammonium chloride, Zinc Chloride, and
Manganese dioxide for an electrolyte.
65
Leclanch Cell
The Leclanch Cell (carbon-zinc) cell is one of the oldest and
most widely used types of dry cells. The carbon in the battery is
in the form of a rod in the centre of the cell which acts as the
positive terminal.
The case is made from zinc and acts as the negative electrode.
The electrolyte for this type of cell is a chemical paste-like
mixture which is housed between the carbon electrode and the
zinc case. The cell is then sealed to prevent any of the liquid in
the paste from evaporating.
The advantage of a carbon-zinc battery is that it is durable and
very inexpensive to produce. It has a good shelf life.
Disadvantages are high internal resistance and limitation of 1.5
volts.
66
Mercury Cell
Mercury cells come in two types; one is a flat cell that is shaped
like a button, while the other is a cylindrical cell that looks like a
regular flashlight battery. Each cell produces about 1.35 volts.
These cells are very rugged and have a relatively long shelf life.
The mercury cell has the advantage of maintaining a fairly
constant output under varying load conditions. For this reason,
they are used in products such as electric watches, hearing aids,
cameras, and test instruments.
67
Lead Acid Cells secondary cell
The Lead Acid Cells consists of a series of cells, with each cell
containing a lead peroxide positive plate and a lead negative
plate immersed in a dilute sulphuric acid solution. This acid
solution is known as sulphuric electrolyte. The whole
arrangement is kept in a leak-proof casing. Each cell delivers
around 2 volts and when six cells are connected in series there
would be 12 V.
68
When a lead-acid battery is
discharged, electrolyte and
the active material on the
plates of the battery are
consumed to produce water
and lead sulphate.
70
An ampere-hour is defined as a current of one ampere flowing
for one hour. If you multiply the current in amperes by the time
of flow in hours, the result is the total number of ampere-hours.
Ampere-hours are normally used to indicate the amount of
energy a battery can deliver.
71
Efficiency of a Lead
Acid Cell
output(discharge), Ah x 100%
ampere-hour efficiency =
input (charge), Ah
72
eries, Parallel and Series-Parallel combination
When several cells are connected in series, the total voltage
output of the battery is equal to the sum of the individual cell
voltages. In the example of
the battery where four 1.5V cells provide a total of 6 volts. When
we connect cells in series, the positive terminal of one cell is
connected to the negative
terminal of the next cell. The current flow through a battery
connected in series is the same as for one cell.
Ri
=R
E =Ei1+R
+Ei2++REi3+R
+E +Ri5
i4+E
1 2 3 4 5
()
(V)
73
Cells connected in parallel, give the battery a greater current
capacity. When cells are connected in parallel, all the positive
terminals are connected together, and all the negative terminals
are connected together. The total voltage output of a battery
connected in parallel is the same as that of a single cell. Cells
connected in parallel have the same effect as increasing the size
of the electrodes and electrolyte in a single cell.
E=E1=E2=E3 Ri
(V) Ri =
Ri=Ri1=Ri2=Ri3 () 3
()
74
Serial parallel combination
75
Applications: Batteries have diverse applications. The following
are some typical examples:
1. Main supplies: The demand for small portable as the main
source of energy has increased dramatically in recent years due
to the widespread use of portable equipment like digital
cameras, computers, cell phones, tablets, remote controls,
hand-held games, and MP3 players. The more conventional
equipment like clocks, radios and toys still provide a substantial
demand for small portable batteries.
The types most commonly used for these applications are zinc
carbon, alkaline, nickel-metal-hydride (NiMH), nickel cadmium
2. Uninterruptible
(NiCad), silver oxide Power Supply (UPS) or Back-up
and lithium.
supplies: A dedicated market exists for batteries used as back-
up (UPS) supplies. In this case the batteries provide power
whenever the main supply fails in order to provide a continuous
supply for essential services like cellular networks, telephone
network, computer networks and servers for hospitals, clinics,
banks but also for specific companies like gaming companies
which cannot afford to have their service interrupted as betting
76
3. Load-levelling: Load-levelling batteries are used in systems
where demand for electrical power may not always be very
regular and in this case batteries can provide the additional
capacity required to make up for the deficiency. This may be a
more efficient way of operation since the main source of power
need not be designed to cater for the occasional peak load.
Load-levelling batteries may also be found installed in
conjunction with wind farms. In this case the source of power
(and not the demand) is irregular since wind is a variable source
of energy. The batteries provide the necessary extra energy
during the lull periods in the available wind.
78
Disposal:
79
LO2. Demonstrate an understanding of inherent
electrical and magnetic properties of
insulators, conductors and other magnetised
material
80
mic structure of conductors, insulators and semiconductors
81
Conductors
Most metals are considered to be good conductors of electrical
current. Copper is just one of the more popular materials that is
used for conductors.
82
Insulators
Insulators are materials that have just the opposite effect on the
flow of electrons. They do not let electrons flow very easily from
one atom to another. Insulators are materials whose atoms have
tightly bound electrons. These electrons are not free to roam
around and be shared by neighbouring atoms.
83
84
The properties of conductors, the applications of
solid, liquid and gas conductors.
Main properties of conductors:
85
The resistivity is a characteristic of the material and is a
measure of how resistive, to the flow of electric current, the
material under consideration is.
The inverse of resistivity of is called conductivity, denoted by
and has units of S/m. Physically conductivity is the characteristic
that measures the ability of a material to let current flow
through it.
86
Modulus of Rigidity or Shear Modulus: The rigidity of a material
is the property that measures its stiffness. A material is
described as being rigid if it can withstand deformation. It is
defined by the modulus of rigidity or the shear modulus given by
the following mathematical expression:
88
Applications of solid metal conductors:
90
Practical uses of copper and aluminium in the electrical
engineering sector: areas in which both metals can be used are
rare
91
Liquids (Electrolytes) as conductors:
chloride ion 92
93
Liquids that conduct must contain freely moving ions to carry
the current and complete the circuit. There are two ion currents
in the electrolyte flowing in opposite directions positive cations
e.g. sodium Na+ are attracted to the negative cathode
electrode, and negative anions e.g. chloride Cl- are attracted to
the positive anode electrode. No electrons flow in the solution,
but they do flow in metal wires or carbon (graphite) electrodes
of the external circuit.
The greater the concentration of the
electrolyte ions, the lower the
electrical resistance of the solution.
This is because there are more ions
present to carry the current e.g. if
the voltage (V, volts) is kept
constant, the current flowing (I,
amps) will steadily increase as the
concentration of the electrolyte is
increased.
94
The molten or dissolved materials are usually acids, alkalis or
salts and their electrical conduction is usually accompanied by
chemical changes e.g. decomposition. The chemical changes
occur at the electrodes which connect the electrolyte liquid
containing ions with the external d.c. electrical supply.
95
Some definitions regarding electrolysis
96
4. Electrodes: The strips of metals inserted in the electrolytes
for conduction of electricity are called electrodes. The metal
electrode connected to the positive terminal of the battery is
called the anode (+). The metal electrode connected to the
negative terminal of the battery is called the cathode (-).
97
To summarize the process of electrolysis, we can say the
following:
Electrolytes dissociate to form negatively charged anions and
positively charged cations.
The ions conduct electricity through the electrolyte.
Cations are attracted towards the negative electrode. They
take the excess electrons from the electrode and neutralize
themselves.
Anions are attracted towards the positive electrode. They give
up the excess electrons from the electrode and neutralize
themselves. The electrolyte dissociates and the constituent
elements of the salt are liberated at the electrodes.
98
Electroplating of metals
99
The following method is adapted:
100
Figure above is a conventionally used electrolytic cell for
depositing silver. Let the item to be silver-plated be a spoon.
Electrolyte used is sodium silver cyanide solution. The cathode
is made out of the item on which the electro deposition is to be
done, in this case it is a spoon. Anode is made of a block of
silver.
The silver atoms at anode loose electrons and enter into the
electrolyte as an ion. This ensures that the concentration of the
Ag in the solution remains constant. The electroplating is
complete when a desired thickness of the silver film is
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OdpvTr-
deposited. 7bYI
101
Gaseous conductors:
104
The properties of insulators, describe the applications
of solid, liquid and gas insulators
105
Maximum or Breakdown voltage: The maximum voltage that an
insulator can withstand is critical. An insulator is almost always
employed in situations in which an electric field is established
across it. The gradient of this electric field is directly correlated
to the potential difference across the insulator. This electric field
gradient causes the molecules inside the molecules to distort
and get polarised. This is shown in figure below which depicts
the setup of two plates X and Y which are connected to an
external source of voltage. The external source sets
up an electric field
inside the dielectric
(insulator) such that
the molecules of the
materials get
elongated in the
direction of the field.
106
It may be inferred that there is a limit to the amount of distortion
a dielectric molecule can withstand as a point will come when
the electric field is so strong that the molecules will be stripped
apart and at this point the dielectric breaks down and current
starts to flow. The magnitude of electric field required to cause
breakdown of the dielectric is the maximum (breakdown
voltage) and is a very important characteristic of an insulator.
The units of this breakdown voltage are Vm-1 or Vmm-1 and vary
greatly between different material: paper 50 kV mm -1, Mica
200kVmm-1temperature:
Operating , air 0.8 to 3kVmm -1
and glass
The operating 80 to 120kVmm
temperature of an .
-1
107
Comparison of water flow (a) with electric current (b)
109
How Insulation Resistance is Measured:
You have seen that good insulation has high resistance; poor
insulation, relatively low resistance. The actual resistance values
can be higher or lower, depending upon such factors as the
temperature or moisture content of the insulation (resistance
decreases in temperature or moisture). With a little record-
keeping and common sense, however, you can get a good
picture of the insulation condition from values that are only
relative. The Megger insulation tester is a small, portable
instrument that gives you a direct reading of insulation
resistance in ohms or mega-ohms. For good insulation, the
resistance usually reads in the mega-ohm range.
The Megger insulation tester is essentially a high-range
resistance meter (ohmmeter) with a built-in direct-current
generator. This meter is of special construction with both current
and voltage coils, enabling true ohms to be read directly,
independent of the actual voltage applied. This method is non-
destructive; that is, it does not cause deterioration of the 110
insulation.
111
112
Typical Megger test instrument hook-up to measure
insulation resistance
113
Effect of temperature on insulation resistance
115
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
116
Shock Hazard from Test Voltage
117
Explosion and Fire Hazard
118
Applications of insulators:
119
PVC:
Polyvinylchloride or PVC is perhaps the most common insulating
material. Most wiring is insulated with PVC including house
wiring. Irradiated PVC has superior strength and resistance to
heat. PVC tapes and tubing are also quite common. Electrical
and electronic housings are commonly moulded from PVC.
CERAMIC:
Ceramics are used to fabricate insulators, components, and
circuit boards. The good electrical insulating properties are
complemented by the high thermal conductivity.
EPOXY/FIBERGLASS:
This laminate is quite common due to its superior strength and
excellent electrical properties even in humid environment. Most
modern circuit boards are made from a grade of
epoxy/fiberglass. (Grades include G10/FR4 and G11/FR5
extended temperature grade.)
120
NYLON:
Nylon has good resistance to abrasion, chemicals, and high
voltages and is often used to manufacture electro-mechanical
components. Nylon is extruded and cast and is filled with a
variety of other materials to improve weathering, impact
resistance, coefficient of friction, and stiffness. The drawback of
Nylon is that it is very susceptible to moisture absorption.
121
Cables and transmission lines:
122
Electronics systems:
123
Power systems:
124
Domestic portable appliances:
125
Electrical cable insulating tape:
PVC tapes are widely used to insulate electrical wires and other
live conductive parts. It is made of vinyl as it stretches well and
provides effective and long-lasting insulation. Electrical tape for
class H insulation is made of fiberglass cloth.
126
Personal protective equipment:
127
Electrical rubber mats:
128
The properties of magnetic materials and the
applications of electromagnetic materials.
Properties of Magnetic Materials:
129
Hysteresis: Referring to B-H hysteresis is term used to explain
the fact that if a magnetic material, which is not magnetised at
time zero, is exposed to an increasing magnetic field, it still
retains some magnetism even when the magnetic field is
reduced to zero. That is hysteresis is the term that describes the
blue curve. The actual shape differs from one magnetic material
Residual
to another.flux density and Retentivity: When the field
strength is brought down to zero the field density does not
diminish completely as some flux density still remains. The
magnitude of this flux density is a property of the material
being used. The term used to describe this is called retentivity.
133
Core Losses in Transformer
Where,
Kh = Hysteresis
constant
Ke = Eddy current
constant 134
he applications of electromagnetic materials
135
Connection of a typical perimeter
alarm system
136
Read/write function on a magnetic surface
137
Basic concept of the magneto-optical disk
138
Basic solenoid structure
139
Basic solenoid operation
140
Basic structure of a single-pole-two
way relay
141
Basic structure of a reed relay
142
Forces on a current-carrying conductor in a magnetic
field (motor action).
143
Basic speaker operation
144
The speaker converts audio signal voltages into sound
waves
145
The basic dArsonval meter movement
146
When the electromagnetic field interacts with the permanent
magnetic field, forces are exerted on the rotating coil assembly,
causing it to move clockwise and thus deflecting the pointer
147
Automotive Crankshaft Position Sensor