Electrical Technology

(Licence A)
 LO3. Apply the physical arrangements of
electrical supply, transmission, distribution
systems and equipment

2
3
1. Be familiar with and describe the energy
conversion methods used to generate electricity and
identify the by-products of each method.

4
 Conversion methods for the
generation of electricity
What is Power Plant?

A power plant or a power generating station, is basically an

industrial location that is utilised for the generation and
distribution of electric power in mass scale, usually in the order
of several 1000 Watts. These are generally located at the sub-
urban regions or several kilometres away from the cities or the
load centres, because of its requisites like huge land and water
demand, along with several operating constraints like the waste
disposal etc. For this reason, a power generating station has to
not only take care of efficient generation but also the fact that
the power is transmitted efficiently over the entire distance. And
thats why, the transformer switch yard to regulate transmission
voltage also becomes an integral part of the power plant.
At the centre of it, however, nearly all power generating stations
has an AC generator or an alternator, which is basically a
rotating machine that is equipped to convert energy from the
mechanical domain (rotating turbine) into electrical domain by
creating relative motion between a magnetic field and the 5
 Types of Power Station

A power plant can be of several types depending mainly on the

type of fuel used. Since for the purpose of bulk power
generation, only thermal, nuclear and hydro power comes
handy, therefore a power generating station can be broadly
classified in the 3 above mentioned types. Let us have a look in
these types of power stations in details.

6
Thermal Power Station

A thermal power station or a coal fired thermal power plant is by

far, the most conventional method of generating electric power
with reasonably high efficiency. It uses coal as the primary fuel
to boil the water available to superheated steam for driving the
steam turbine. The steam turbine is then mechanically coupled
to an alternator rotor, the rotation of which results in the
generation of electric power. Generally in India, bituminous coal
or brown coal are used as fuel of boiler which has volatile
content ranging from 8 to 33 % and ash content 5 to 16 %. To
enhance the thermal efficiency of the plant, the coal is used in
the boiler in its pulverized form. In coal fired thermal power
plant, steam is obtained in very high pressure inside the steam
boiler by burning the pulverized coal. This steam is then super
heated in the super heater to extreme high temperature. This
super heated steam is then allowed to enter into the turbine, as
the turbine blades are rotated by the pressure of the steam. The
turbine is mechanically coupled with alternator in a way that its
7
Thermal Power Station

After having imparted energy into the turbine rotors, the steam
is made to pass out of the turbine blades into the steam
condenser of turbine. In the condenser, cold water at ambient
temperature is circulated with the help of pump which leads to
the condensation of the low pressure wet steam. Then this
condensed water is further supplied to
low pressure water heater
where the low pressure
steam increases the
temperature of this feed
water, it is again heated in
high pressure. This outlines
the basic working
methodology of a thermal
power plant.

8
Advantages of Thermal Power Plants

Fuel used i.e. coal is quite cheaper.

Initial cost is less as compared to other generating stations.
It requires less space as compared to hydro-electric power
stations.

Disadvantages of Thermal Power Plants

It pollutes atmosphere due to production of smoke & fumes.

Running cost of the power plant is more than hydro electric
plant.

9
Nuclear Power Station

The nuclear power generating stations are similar to the

thermal stations in more ways than one. However, the
exception here is that, radioactive elements like uranium and
thorium are used as the primary fuel in place of coal. Also in a
Nuclear station the furnace and the boiler are replaced by the
nuclear reactor and the heat exchanger tubes. For the process
of nuclear power generation, the radioactive fuels are made to
undergo fission reaction within the nuclear reactors. The fission
reaction, propagates like a controlled chain reaction and is
accompanied by unprecedented amount of energy produced,
which is manifested in the form of heat. This heat is then
transferred to the water present in the heat exchanger tubes.
As a result, super heated steam at very high temperature is
produced. Once the process of steam formation is
accomplished, the remaining process is exactly similar to a
thermal power plant, as this steam will further drive the turbine
blades to generate electricity. 10
Advantages of Nuclear Power Plants

Minimum fuel consumption. It has been observed that for

running a 1000 MW thermal power plant, nearly 6 10 6 kg of
coal to be burnt every day, whereas in a nuclear power plant
only 2.5 kg of Uranium to be consumed daily for getting same
output. Initial cost is less as compared to other generating
stations.
The initial investment of nuclear power plant is quite high. .

Disadvantages of Thermal Power Plants

There is always a chance of radiation hazard because of

leakage in reactor chamber
Its disposals are not free from radioactivity

11
Nuclear Power Station

12
Hydro-Electric Power Station

In Hydro-electric plants the energy of the falling water is utilized

to drive the turbine which in turn runs the generator to produce
electricity. Rain falling upon the earths surface has potential
energy relative to the oceans towards which it flows. This
energy is converted to shaft work where the water falls through
an appreciable vertical distance. The hydraulic power is
therefore a naturally available renewable energy given by the
equation:

Where, g = acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m/sec 2, =

density of water = 1000 kg/m 3, H = height of fall of water. This
power is utilised for rotating the alternator shaft, to convert it to
equivalent electrical energy. An important point to be noted is
that, the hydro-electric plants are of much lower capacity
compared to their thermal or nuclear counterpart. For this 13
Advantages of Hydro Electric Power Station

It requires no fuel , water is used for generation of electrical

energy.
It is neat and clean energy generation.
Construction is simple , less maintenance is required.
It helps in irrigation and flood control also.

Disadvantages Hydro Electric Power Station

It involves high capital cost due to dam construction.

Availability of water depends upon weather conditions.
It requires high transmission cost as the plant is located in
hilly areas.

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15
 By-products of electricity generation
Climate effects (climate changed) have intensified and pushed
research of alternative (also referred to as renewable) methods
of generation of electricity. The growth in the use of wind and
solar power has been exponential, backed and aided
undoubtedly, by governments subsidies and favourable feed-in
tariffs for units of electricity generated by the use of these
alternative methods.
Other conversion methods are available to countries having
abundant supplies of water which makes hydroelectric power a
feasible means of electric power production. Research is also
actively going in other areas notably in the production of
electricity by tidal energy and through biomass.

Notwithstanding the advances made and importance given to a

shift towards the use of alternative sources of energy, the
production of electricity still comes predominantly from fossil
fuels and nuclear energy. Fossil fuels are by far the more
polluting but nuclear energy presents huge challenges for the
proper and safe disposal of spent nuclear fuels and waste. 16
Global warming changes climate

Human activity mainly burning fossil fuels and chopping down

forests has caused temperatures to rise worldwide. Thats
global warming.
The warmer atmosphere triggers climate change, or shifts in
normal
When we climate
drive, patterns. Such
fly or power deviations
our canair-polluting
homes with result in more
severe
sources,weather.
we release gases that heat our planet. The science is
clear.
Burning fossil fuels does damage
Burning fossil fuels such as coal or petroleum send carbon
dioxide, methane and other heat-trapping greenhouse gases
into the atmosphere. Gradually, temperatures climb. Think of it
like a thermal blanket around the Earth.

Clearing forests worsens warming

Chopping down vast swaths of forests, known as clear cutting
or deforestation, adds to the problem. Such drastic removal of
trees is being driven by theagriculture, timber and other 17
Changes breed intense weather

Hotter air increases ocean evaporation. A warmer atmosphere

also can hold more water, which can intensify weather events.
Heat waves are stronger. Storm surges rise higher. Blizzards
bring more snowfall.
The number of natural disasters has doubled in the past few
decades 90 percent of them are weather related.
These intensified episodes can cause greater destruction to
property and loss of life.

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limate changes effects plunder the planet

1. More heat melts ice, worsens weather and expands

oceans
These are some high-profile examples of how the extra warmth
changes climate conditions and weather patterns:

The cryosphere the frozen water on Earth is

melting.A warmer atmosphere causes the planet's
snowpack, glaciers and sea and freshwater ice to melt
rapidly. Melting glaciers and polar ice sheets contribute to
unprecedented sea level rise. Melting sea ice exposes darker
ocean waters, which absorb more sunlight than ice heating
the ocean more and triggering a relentless cycle of melting
and heating.

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 Weather is getting more extreme.Heat waves are more
frequent worldwide. The increased evaporation of water is
like fuel for storms,exacerbating extreme weather events,
such as hurricanes. Rising sea levels make storm surges
capable of much greater damage. In more naturally arid
areas, droughts and wildfires intensify.

The oceans are getting hotter, expanding and

becoming more acidic.They are getting hotter because
they absorb 90 percent of the extra heat in the climate. This
shift causes the oceans to expand,contributing to higher sea
levels, and strips corals of their vivid colours. Meanwhile,
nearly a third of carbon dioxide emissions end up in the
oceans, triggering a chemistry change that makes the water
more acidic, dissolving the shells of sea creatures. The ocean
is almost 40 percent more acidic than it used to be.

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2. Human life and prosperity suffer as the
climate shift

Our health, economy, livelihoods, infrastructure and much

more waver. Consider:

Climate change is a major threat to

agriculture.Where, how and when we grow food is
vitally connected to our climate's normal patterns.
Worldwide, farmers are struggling to keep up with shifting
weather patterns and increasingly unpredictable water
supplies. Farms are more likely to face attacks from
weeds, diseases and pests, which reduce yield.

Warmer, polluted air affects our health.A warmer

atmosphere increases the formation ofground-level ozone
also known as smog in polluted regions. Smog irritates
lungs and triggers asthma attacks. Smoke from wildfires
further degrades the air. Extreme summer heat means 21
more deaths during heat waves. Warmer freshwater
 Infrastructure and transportation are at risk.Hot
weather, flooding and other extreme weather events
damage infrastructure, put heavy burdens on electrical
supplies and disrupt how we travel and commute.

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3. Natural habitats become hostile to plants
and animals
Habitats on land and in the sea are changing, making them
inhospitable for some species, while letting others move in and
take over. Some ecosystems are at riskof collapsing.

The changes to the natural world are vast. Here are three well-
documented examples:

The ice Arctic animals need is vanishing.As sea ice

disappears, ice-dependent mammals such as walruses and
polar bears struggle to survive. In 2008, the polar bear
became the first animal to be added to the Endangered
Species Act list of threatened species because of global
warming.

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 Coral and shellfish are suffering. Coral reefs are highly
sensitive to small changes in ocean temperatures. The heat
stresses the algae that nourish the corals and provide their
vibrant colours. The algae then leave, and the corals
eventually starve an event known as bleaching. As coral
reefs are home to many other species, such as fish, their
collapse would disrupt the entire ecosystem. Also, a more
acidic ocean affects the normal calcium balance, meaning
creatures with calcified shells, such as shellfish and coral,
may not have enough calcium to grow.

Forests are more prone to deadly infestations. Milder

winters and longer summers allow tree-killing insects to
thrive. Meanwhile, trees weakened by prolonged drought
have lower defence mechanisms. This cycle of warmer
weather, weak trees and thriving insects is likely the culprit
behind the massive die-off of 181300 square kilometres of
Rocky Mountain conifers.
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It is also important to point the environmental impact of some
of the renewable sources of energy especially solar and wind
power. Both photovoltaic panels and wind turbines have a big
impact on the visual aspect of the environment. Admittedly PV
panels are normally installed at ground level and at a shallow
inclined angle. But for better conversion efficiency PV panels
should track the sun and in this they need to be installed high
above the ground. Also the conversion efficiency of PV panels is
quite low (the better ones are not more than about 20%). Since
the average insolation (light energy from the sun at ground
level) is only approximately 200W/m2 this means that 1 m2 of
area is required to generate 40W. This means that in order to
generate 1MW an area of approximately 25000 m2 is required.
In the case of Malta, where the available land area is small and
most of what is left is pristine virgin land, the option of
generating electricity from solar energy is a difficult. For this
reason PV panels are being installed on the roof of buildings in
built-up areas. It is highly unlikely that any solar farms can ever
materialise. 25
Energy conversion through wind power is also aesthetically a
very sensitive option. Again to generate any significant
amounts of energy, by wind power, requires a substantial
footprint but in this case the noise factor is an additional
unwanted by-product and therefore wind turbines, unlike PV
panels, have to installed away from built-up areas. In Malta
various sites (including a couple in territorial waters) have been
considered by the authorities where wind farms capable of
generating a few megawatts of power could be installed but
none have materialised and it is doubtful whether any will ever
materialise. Other countries in Europe, notably Denmark and
Wales, have installed wind farms but, albeit small countries,
sufficient land area is available to makes electricity generation
through wind a viable option.

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Supply Standardisation: The electrical supply found in most of
Europe, Africa, Asia, Australia and New Zealand is nominally
230V (+/- 6%) at a frequency of 50Hz (+/- 1%). On the other
hand North America, Japan and Taiwan use a voltage between
173/100 and 220/127V at 60Hz. The European Union has
harmonised its voltage supplies so that now the standard
within the EU is 400/230V +/-10% at 50Hz.
Supply standardisation is important in order for countries to be
able to connect to the grid and trade their electricity supply.

27
2. Explain how electricity is transmitted and describe
the operation of power transformers, switchgear and
protection systems and identify the transmission
voltages used.

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Transmission of Electrical Power: The electricity generated
by the generating station needs to be transmitted and
distribution to the various utilities that utilise electricity as their
main form of energy. A simplified schematic of the electricity
network is shown in figure below:

A main component of the transmission network is the power

transformer. Its main purpose is twofold: to step-up the voltage
to a higher value which is more suited for transmission and then
to step-down the voltage which is more suite to distribution and
29
utilisation.
Generators, frequency control, three
phase distribution

A power generator consists of an electromagnet (rotor) which is

rotated directly by the turbine shaft. Each revolution of the
turbine turns over the generator once. The rotor is surrounded
bystatorcoils in which the moving rotor induces a voltage that
will ultimately be delivered to the consumer.
The generator's electromagnetic rotor is d.c. controlled and
since the rotor's currents are lower than those in the stator
coils, it is easier to engineer the moving contacts (the slip-rings
and brush-gear) which are needed to power or
"excite" the rotor.

30
If the voltage is plotted against the angle of rotation, then the
stator voltage peaks at 90 degrees of rotation, falls back to zero
after 180 degrees and then peaks in the reverse direction at
270 degrees before completing a full cycle at 360 degrees.
Because it deliversalternating voltage, this generator is
more correctly called analternator. (A dynamoproduces
ad.c.voltage instead.)

31
To get the most out of each revolution of the rotor, several
stator coils are deployed so that multiple sine wave voltages
are generated per revolution. In fact three coils are spaced at
120 apart and the coils are designated by a colour code
familiar to every electrician:

32
The generator windings produce foe example, 15.75kV
(15,750V) between the phases.

Obviously each stator voltage will rise and fall as the rotor
passes by, and the overall result can be plotted as a three-
phase voltage. It can be seen that the voltage in the blue
phase is 120 behind the yellow phase, which lags 120 behind
the red phase.
By increasing the rotor's speed, the voltages induced in the
stator coils will occur more frequently, although the three
phases will always be 120 apart. This simplified approach
assumes that there is only one pair of magnetic poles on the
33
spinning rotor.
If the rotor spins once per second, then the a.c. voltage
generated in each phase will have a frequency of 1 Hertz (1 Hz),
changing polarity every half second. The frequency of the
generated voltage is calculated by:

or

The statutory limits defined in the Electricity Supply

Regulations of 1937 are 50 Hz. +/- 1% (i.e. 49.5 - 50.5 Hz)
although the National Grid (NGC) strives for a variation of no
more than 0.1% as best practice. The turbines operate at this
speed, 24 hours a day for months on end.

34
Frequency Control

The frequency of the voltage is the power station's ultimate

yardstick of quality, and frequency itself plays a much more
fundamental role in the country's entire electricity system than
may generally be realised. Great effort is made to maintain this
value and to eliminate cumulative errors in the consumer's
supply, which might otherwise affect electric clocks, time
switches, audio equipment etc., and any minor change in
frequency is compensated for later on, in order to enable
frequency-sensitive equipment to catch up (or slow down).
All power plants interconnected by the National Grid can be
considered as part of an enormous "pool" of electricity hooked
together on an "infinite busbar", which runs at a set frequency.
Every power station thus connected operates at this frequency.
If at this time a small isolated power station was not connected
to the busbar, but was then hooked in later, the frequency of
the existing "pool" would easily dominate the generator of the
35
newly-connected power plant. The net result is that all parts of
The operating frequency of the rest of the grid is thus physically
applied to an individual generator, in what is effectively a
contest of wills. Since a generator's stator is synchronised to its
rotor (and turbine shaft), it is necessary to ensure that a gas
turbine runs at a speed which enables the generator's
frequency to be matched to the rest of the grid. Hence the
challenge is to supply just enough fuel to the turbines to ensure
that the generator runs at the prevailing system frequency
adopted by the rest of the grid.
Any increase in the fuel supply will not necessarily cause
the turbine to run any faster, because the generator is
already synchronised or locked to the frequency of the
grid: instead the turbine will simply be "loaded", which is
undesirable.
If the overall amount of generated power is insufficient to meet
the demands placed on the system by consumers, then every
turbine/ generator on that system will tend to slow down
because insufficient input energy is being supplied. Hence the
frequency would start to fall.
The system frequency can therefore be best controlled by 36
Voltage Control

The other key parameter is of coursevoltage. For consumers,

the statutory limits on their 230V [UK] supply is +/- 6%. Unlike
the system frequency, the voltage levels can vary in different
parts of the transmission system. The voltage output of a
generator is directly
related to the rotor voltage - i.e.
the excitation voltage, which is
controlled by a complex automatic
voltage regulation (AVR) system.
Every aspect of the generator and
the turbine's performance is
constantly monitored by the
power plant's fully computerised
control room.

37
Onward transmission

The next part of the electricity generation process relates to the

way in which the power generated in the stator coils is
transmitted to the user. Typically, the generator outputs 15.75kV
and is rated for more than two hundred megawatts.
The three phases - red, yellow and blue - are carried outdoors
from the generator using large ducts which resemble pipelines.
These pipes are pressurised in order to prevent corrosion or
water ingress. The ducts are also colour coded to identify the
phases, and this same theme is used all the way through to the
end-user's premises.

38
One major problem is, how to actually switch such high
magnitudes of voltage? Since these extremely high potential
voltages can arc across considerable distances, one can image
the nightmarish problems of trying to switch many thousands of
volts. The switchgear concerned must be able to withstand not
only their full loads but six-fold overloads which occur when
motors are starting; they must be capable of carrying or
interrupting fault currents and must also cope with 17,500 Volts
peak across the contact terminals.

39
The solution lies in the use of special gas-filled circuit breakers.
These are spring-loaded and motor driven and are designed to
quench the high tension arc which develops between opening
contacts. The compound sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) is used
which is 6 times less conductive than air. Earlier types used oil-
filled contacts or compressed air to snuff out the arc.

The 15.75kV (phase-to-phase) generator voltages are stepped

up to 400kV by an external transformer - one per generator - for
onwards transmission to the National Grid.

40
The large transformers are oil-cooled in order to aid heat
dissipation. In the largest types, oil is circulated by pumps and
heat will be exchanged with a water-filled coolant circuit.

41
In the event of a transformer internal failure (e.g. winding
shorts, or contacts starting to burn out), hydrogen is one of the
first gases to be produced, so by using a Hydran to test for this
gas any trends can be spotted at an early stage.
A device known as aBuchholz relayis used as an automatic
switch that responds to increasing levels of gas build-up in the
oil. More accurate tests of oil samples are also undertaken and
other gases such as acetylene can be measured over, say, a
month and a good estimate made of the nature of an internal
fault. Ultimately the oil can be drained and then the fault can
be repaired.

42
Transmission Voltages: The transmission voltages used are
determined according to the economic voltage for the line.
Normally the generating station output voltage is normally
stepped up 274kV or 400kV for transmission. These high
voltages are used since for the same transmission losses a
higher voltage requires a conductor whose cross-sectional area
is less than if a lower transmission voltage were used. There is
however a trade-off between the actual value used and it has
to do with economics of the network. Some issues to be
considered are:
Cost of transformer operating at higher voltages,
Cost insulation on the cables, switchgear and isolators,
Cost of switchgear and isolators rated to operate at higher
voltages,
Cost of copper saved in the thinner transmission cables,
The actual distances to be covered.

43
 Among the different types of transmission systems are
overhead systems and cable systems. The primary
consideration in the comparison of competitive system in cost
but the case of maintenance, vulnerability to damage and
public
service must also be taken into account.

44
Comparative Cost per Mile for Transmitting a given amount
power using overhead line and under ground line.

Voltage KV Cost of O/H Cost of Ratio

Line U/G Cable (
( /Km) /Km.)
400 34 615 18
220 17 217 13
132 6.5 55 8

45
Three main problems associated with EHV, namely radio
interference, line insulation and equipment insulation. The
various voltages adopted by different countries above 230KV are
275, 287, 345, 380, 400, 500, 735, 1100KV etc. Voltages above
765KV are called ultra high voltages (UHV). Two main problems
are involved which limits the large amount of power to be
transmitted over long distances by A.C. systems. The first is the
technical limitation and other is the economic
consideration and usually later governs the final choice of
design. Recently by virtue of its various advantages over A.C.
transmission, high voltage direct current (HVDC) transmission is
also become popular in some countries. A.C. is better for
generating and distributing point of view but D.C. is
preferable for transmission over long distances.

46
 While selecting the transmission voltage the present and future
expectable voltage of other lines in vicinity of the line under
design are taken into account. The number of circuits in EHV
system can be one or two.
Table for Voltage Selection

Distance (km) Number of Standard

phases operating
voltage (kV)
Up to 8 3 6.6
Up to 16 3 11
Up to 64 3 33
Up to 116 3 66
Up to 240 3 132
Up to 480 3 220
Up to 800 3 400
47
Empirical formula is given by

Where,
VL = Transmission line voltage in
KV
L = Length of line in km
P = Power to be transmitted in
MW
NC = Number of circuits
cos =Power
Example: factor of load
L = 300Km
P = 280MW
NC = 1
cos =0.9 (lagging)

48
Transmission of electricity can also be carried out using DC.
There are special circumstances, like submarine transmission,
where the losses due to AC (especially due to the relatively high
capacitances involved since the separation distance between
cables is very small) outweigh the economic gains that can be
made and DC is the better option.
There are some advantages in using DC transmission system:
Only two conductor are required for DC transmission system.
It is further possible to use only one conductor of DC
transmission system if earth is utilized as return path of the
system.
The potential stress on the insulator of DC transmission
system is about 70 % of same voltage AC transmission
system. Hence, less insulation cost is involved in DC
transmission system.
Inductance, capacitance, phase displacement and surge
problems can be eliminated in DC system.

49
Even having these advantages in DC system, generally
electrical energy is transmitted by three(3) phase AC
transmission system. The alternating voltages can easily be
stepped up and down, which is not possible in DC transmission
system.
Maintenance of AC substation is quite easy and economical
compared to DC.
The transforming of power in AC electrical sub-station is much
But AC transmission system also has some disadvantages like:
easier than motor-generator sets in DC system.
The volume of conductor used in AC system is much higher
than that of DC.
The reactance of the line, affects the voltage regulation of
electrical power transmission system.
Problems of skin effects and proximity effects only found in
AC system.
AC transmission system is more likely to be affected by
corona effect than DC system.
Construction of AC electrical power transmission network is
more completed than DC system.
50
Proper synchronizing is required before inter connecting two
Power and Auto-Transformers

Principle of operation and construction: The basic construction

of a transformer is shown in figure below:

51
A transformer operates on the principals of electromagnetic
induction, in the form ofMutual Induction.

Mutual induction is the process by which a coil of wire

magnetically induces a voltage into another coil located in close
proximity to it. Then we can say that transformers work in the
magnetic domain, and transformers get their name from the
fact that they transform one voltage or current level into
another.
Transformers are capable of either increasing or decreasing the
voltage and current levels of their supply, without modifying its
frequency, or the amount of electrical power being transferred
from one winding to another via the magnetic circuit.

52
A single phase voltage transformer basically consists of two
electrical coils of wire, one called the Primary Winding and
another called the Secondary Winding. Normally, we will
define the primary side of the transformer as the side that
usually takes power, and the secondary as the side that
usually delivers power. In a single-phase voltage transformer
the primary is usually the side with the higher voltage.

These two coils are not in electrical contact with each other but
are instead wrapped together around a common closed
magnetic iron circuit called the core. This soft iron core is not
solid but made up of individual laminations connected together
to help reduce the cores losses.

The two coil windings are electrically isolated from each other
but are magnetically linked through the common core allowing
electrical power to be transferred from one coil to the other.
When an electric current passed through the primary winding, a
magnetic field is developed which induces a voltage into the 53
Transformer Construction (single-phase)

Where:
VP-is the Primary Voltage
VS-is the Secondary Voltage
NP-is the Number of Primary Windings
NS-is the Number of Secondary Windings
(phi)-is the Flux Linkage
54
A Transformers
Turns Ratio
Transformers are all about ratios. The ratio of the primary to
the secondary, the ratio of the input to the output, and the turns
ratio of any given transformer will be the same as its voltage
ratio. In other words for a transformer: turns ratio = voltage
ratio. The actual number of turns of wire on any winding is
generally not important, just the turns ratio and this relationship
is givenAssuming
as: an ideal transformer and the phase
angles:PS

Assuming an ideal transformer and the

Power:PPPS

55
Electrical Power in a Transformer

Another one of the transformer basics parameters is its power

rating. The power rating of a transformer is obtained by simply
multiplying the current by the voltage to obtain a rating inVolt-
amperes, (VA). Small single phase transformers may be rated
in volt-amperes only, but much larger power transformers are
rated in units ofKilo volt-amperes, (kVA) where 1 kilovolt-
ampere is equal to 1,000 volt-amperes, and units of Mega volt-
amperes, (MVA) where 1 mega volt-ampere is equal to 1
million volt-amperes.
In an ideal transformer (ignoring any losses), the power
available in the secondary winding will be the same as the
power in the primary winding, they are constant wattage
devices and do not change the power only the voltage to
current ratio. Thus, in an ideal transformer thePower Ratiois
equal to one (unity) as the voltage,Vmultiplied by the
current,Iwill remain constant.
56
That is the electric
power at one
voltage/current level on
the primary is
transformed into
electric power, at the
same frequency, to the
same voltage/current
level on the secondary
side. Although the
transformer can step-up
(or step-down) voltage,
it cannot step-up
power. Thus, when a
transformer steps-up a
voltage, it steps-down
the current and vice-
versa, so that the
output power is always 57
at the same value as
Power in a Transformer

Where:Pis the primary phase angle andSis the secondary

phase angle.
Note that since power loss is proportional to the square of the
current being transmitted, that is:I2R, increasing the voltage,
lets say doubling (2) the voltage would decrease the current
by the same amount, (2) while delivering the same amount of
power to the load and therefore reducing losses by factor of 4. If
the voltage was increased by a factor of 10, the current would
decrease by the same factor reducing overall losses by factor of
100.
58
Transformer Basics Efficiency

A transformer does not require any moving parts to transfer

energy. This means that there are no friction or windage losses
associated with other electrical machines. However,
transformers do suffer from other types of losses called copper
losses and iron losses but generally these are quite small.
Copper losses, also known asI2Rloss is the electrical power as
a result of circulating the currents around the transformers
copper windings, hence the name. Copper losses represents the
greatest loss in the operation of a transformer. The actual watts
of power lost can be determined (in each winding) by squaring
the amperes and multiplying by the resistance in ohms of the
winding (I2R).
Iron losses, also known as hysteresis is the lagging of the
magnetic molecules within the core, in response to the
alternating magnetic flux. This lagging (or out-of-phase)
condition is due to the fact that it requires power to reverse
magnetic molecules; they do not reverse until the flux has 59
Transformer
Efficiency

Transformer Efficiency at load

factor n

60
61
Single phase transformers come in two configurations: the core
type and the shell type.

LIMB

YOKE
In the core type construction the windings can be wound on the
same limb or spread over two limbs. In the latter case the two
limbs each carry half of each winding. In the shell type the 62
The windings are wound so that they are as close to each other
as possible to minimise the leakage flux. There are two types of
construction as shown in figure below. In the concentric the one
winding is wound first and the second winding is wound on top
of it. In the sandwich type the windings are wound alternately
as shown in the same figure below.

63
64
65
Three phase high voltage transformer

66
Autotransformer

The main difference from the normal double wound transformer

is that the auto-transformer has only one winding as shown in
figure below.
The same equations as
for the normal
transformer apply so
that:

67
The one important advantage of the auto-transformer when
compared with the double wound transformer is the reduction in
cost and weight due to the fact that only one winding is used.
Note also that the auto-transformer can be constructed as either
a step-down or step-up transformer (turns ratio is what
determines the type of operation).

Auto-transformers are normally employed where the change

between primary and secondary voltages are small. In this case
the cost and weight saving is maximum since in the double
wound transformer two windings of, practically, the same
number of turns and cross-sectional area are required whilst the
auto-transformer requires only one. The schematic of the auto-
transformer in figure above shows that a number of trappings
are available to enable the secondary voltage to be varied.

68
The major disadvantage of the auto-transformer is that since
only one winding is used if the auto-transformer is used for high
voltage transformation, that is the primary voltage is much
higher than the secondary, then should winding develop a short
across its windings, the primary high voltage may appear at the
secondary with risk of damage to the equipment or electric
shock to personnel.

Auto-transformers are used:

In transmission systems to convert from 132kV to 66kV,
In industry to adapt machinery to operate from one voltage
to another (for instance from 480V to 600V),
To convert between the two common domestic supply
voltages (100/160V to 200/250V).
On long rural distribution lines to regulate the voltage by
using a higher tapping voltage to compensate for voltage
drops.
As motor starter in manufacturing industries.
69
Switchgear and Protection systems:

Switchgear: Switchgear is required in an electrical circuit so that

it can provide a means of interrupting or restoring the flow of
current for control purpose.
Switchgear almost always incorporates some protection against
overcurrent caused by faults like breakdown of insulation
between conductors, short circuits at the load or sudden
increases in the load. Other fault conditions that require
protection are earth leakages, due to bad, faulty or damaged
insulation, which may also cause overcurrent but, more serious,
may pose a life threatening situation if the leakage current is
not high enough to cause the overcurrent protection circuit to
trip.
Switchgear can be divided into four categories: switches,
isolators, contactors and circuit breakers. The following is a brief
description of each:
70
Circuit Breaker: The circuit breaker is meant to open or close a
circuit under all current conditions including abnormal
overcurrent situations like short circuit. In most applications
circuit breakers employ some protection mechanism that will
trip the breaker (interrupt the current) in the event of short
circuit, overload, earth leakage and even under-voltage. The
interruption mechanism is generally electromagnetic in nature.
Under-voltage protection is especially important in applications
where the circuit supplies a motor as in this case the motor may
start inadvertently once the mains supply is restored. The may
be a dangerous situation for the operating personnel.

71
Switch: The purpose of the switch is to operate as a mechanical
device capable of opening or closing a circuit when under
normal load conditions. Its design must be such that arcing at
the contacts is mitigated. For light loads switches are usually
air-break while heavy loads require oil-immersed switches.

72
Isolators: The isolator is not a switch as it is not meant to be
used under load conditions. An isolator does not have provision
for quick make-and-break operation. It is used to ensure that an
electrical circuit is completely de-energized for service or
maintenance

73
Contactor: A contactor is also meant to open or close a circuit
under load conditions but, unlike the switch, the contacts are
moved under the influence of an electromagnetic device. The
operator pushes a pushbutton which energises the
electromagnetic which in turn pulls or releases the mechanism
that moves the contacts.

74
Protection: Protection is included in circuits to provide a means
of breaking the circuit (interrupting the flow of current)
whenever a fault condition arises so that the circuit is protected
and damage is limited only to the part where the fault exists.
The following is a list of protective devices:

Fuse: A fuse is an intentional weak link in the circuit. It is

designed to heat and melt, thus breaking the circuit, when
the current reaches a pre-determined level. Fuses are
normally classified by application or their various specified
ratings. Normally the quoted specifications include:

75
o Current rating: the current that the fuse is designed to carry
without breaking.
o Rated minimum fusing current: this is the minimum current
at which the fuse will blow in a specified time. It may vary
between 1.25 and 2.5 times the current rating (this is also
identified by the Class type).
o Operating Voltage: The voltage of operation is important
since when a fuse blows the circuit voltage appears across
the fuse and if the operating voltage rating of the fuse is too
low for the circuit in which it is used it may arc and current
still continue to flow).
o Time (Slow Blow or Fast Acting): A slow blow fuse is normally
used in circuits where the current on switch on is initially
high but during operation it decreases rapidly. In this case
the fuse does not blow due to the initial current surge but
only breaks if the current remains high. A fast acting fuse is
preferable in cases where the current flow is more regular
and there are no initial surges so that if a fault current arises
the current breaks the circuit in the least possible time. 76
o Semi-enclosed fuses. Fuses should preferably be
of the cartridge type. However, semi-enclosed
fuses to BS 3036 are still permitted for use in
domestic and similar premises if fitted with a
fuse element which, in the absence of more
specific advice from the manufacturer, meets
the requirements of Table 53.1.

77
A rewirable fuse consists of a fuse, holder, a fuse element and
a fuse carrier (the holder and carrier being made of Porcelain or
Bakelite). The circuits for which this type of fuse is designed
have a colour code, which is marked on the fuse holder and is
as follows:

45 A green

30 A red

20 A yellow

15 A blue

5 A white

78
ADVANTAGES OF SEMI-ENCLOSED FUSES
They are very cheap compared with other protective devices
both to install and to replace.
There are no mechanical moving parts.
It is easy to identify a blown fuse .

DISADVANTAGES OF SEMI-ENCLOSED FUSES

The fuse element may be replaced with wire of the wrong
size either deliberately or by accident.
The fuse element weakens with age due to oxidization, which
may result in a failure under normal operating conditions.
The circuit cannot be restored quickly since the fuse element
requires screw fixing.
They have low-breaking capacity since, in the event of a
severe fault, the fault current may vaporize the fuse element
and continue to flow in the form of an arc across the fuse
terminals.
There is a danger from scattering hot metal if the fuse carrier
is 79
o Cartridge fuses to BS 1361. These are for use in
domestic and similar premises

80
o Cartridge fuses to BS 88. Three
types are specified:
gG fuse links with a full-range
breaking capacity for general
application
gM fuse links with a full-range
breaking capacity for the protection
of motor circuits
aM fuse links for the protection of
motor circuits.

A more recent development has been the adoption by the IEC of a

fuse-type gM for motor protection, designed to cover starting, and
short-circuit conditions. This type of fuse is more popular in some
countries than in others, but at the present time the aM fuse in 81
The cartridge fuse breaks a faulty circuit in the same way
as a semi-enclosed fuse, but its construction eliminates
some of the disadvantages experienced with an open-fuse
element.
The fuse element is encased in a glass or ceramic tube
and secured to end caps which are firmly attached to the
body of the fuse so that they do not
blow off when the fuse operates. With larger-size cartridge
fuses, lugs or tags are sometimes brazed on to the end-caps
to fix the fuse cartridge mechanically to the carrier. They
may also be filled with quartz sand to

82
ADVANTAGES OF CARTRIDGE FUSES
They have no mechanical moving parts.
The declared rating is accurate.
The element does not weaken with age.
They have small physical size and no external arcing
which permits their use in plug tops and small fuse carriers.
Their operation is more rapid than semi-enclosed fuses.
Operating time is inversely proportional to the fault current.

DISADVANTAGES OF CARTRIDGE FUSES

They are more expensive to replace than rewirable fuse
elements.
They can be replaced with an incorrect cartridge.
The cartridge may be shorted out by wire or silver foil in
extreme cases of bad practice.
They are not suitable where extremely high-fault currents
may develop.

83
HBC FUSES (BS
88-6)might imply, these HBC (High Breaking
As the name
Capacity) cartridge
fuses are for protecting circuits where extremely high-fault
currents
The fuse may
element consists of
develop such asstrips
several parallel on industrial
of pure installations or distribution
systems.
silver encased in a substantial
ceramic cylinder, the ends of
which are sealed with tinned
brass end-caps incorporating
fixing lugs. The cartridge is
filled with silica sand to ensure
quick arc extraction.
Incorporated on the body is an
indicating device to show when
the fuse has blown.

84
ADVANTAGES OF HBC FUSES
They have no mechanical moving parts.
The declared rating is accurate.
The element does not weaken with age.
Their operation is very rapid under fault conditions.
They are capable of breaking very heavy fault currents
safely.
They are capable of discriminating between a persistent
fault and a
transient fault such as the large starting current taken by
motors.
It is difficult to insert an incorrect size of cartridge fuse
since different
ratings are made to different physical sizes.

DISADVANTAGES OF HBC FUSES

They are very expensive compared
to semi-enclosed fuses.
85
MCBs BS EN 60898
The disadvantage of all fuses is that when they have operated
they must be replaced. An MCB overcomes this problem since
it is an automatic switch which opens in the event of an
excessive current flowing in the circuit and can be closed when
the circuit returns to normal.

An MCB incorporates a thermal and magnetic tripping device.

The load current flows through the thermal and the
electromagnetic mechanisms. In normal operation the current
is insufficient to operate either device, but when an overload
occurs, the bimetal strip heats up, bends and trips the
mechanism. The time taken for this action to occur provides an
MCB with the ability to discriminate between an overload
which persists for a very short time, for example the starting
current of a motor, and an overload due to a fault. The device
only trips when a fault current occurs. This slow operating time
is ideal for overloads but when a short circuit occurs it is
important to break the faulty circuit very quickly. This is 86
ADVANTAGES OF MCBs
Tripping characteristics and therefore circuit protection
are set by
installer.
The circuit protection is difficult to interfere with.
The circuit is provided with discrimination.
A faulty circuit may be easily and quickly restored.
The supply may be safely restored by an unskilled
operator.

DISADVANTAGES OF MCBS
They are relatively expensive compared to rewirable
fuses but look
at the advantages to see why they are so popular.
They contain mechanical moving parts and therefore
require regular
testing to ensure satisfactory operation under fault
conditions.
87
88
Disconnection times

The protective device must operate within 0.2,

0.4, 1 or 5 seconds as appropriate for the
circuit.
Time/current characteristics of protective devices
Disconnection times for various overcurrent devices
are given in the form of a logarithmic graph. This
means that each successive graduation of the axis
represents a ten times change over the previous
graduation.
These logarithmic scales are shown in the graphs of
Appendix 3 of BS 7671.

89
From given
figure it can be
seen that the
particular
protective
device
represented by
this
characteristic
will take 8
seconds to
disconnect a
fault current of
50 A and 0.08
seconds to clear
90
 Overload Trips: Overload trips are used where more
discrimination is required in the tripping current. Also,
compare to fuses, overload trips are resettable unlike fuses
which have to be replaced. They are also more responsive
that fuses as normally the fault
current is sensed by an electromagnet which
trips the circuit through a mechanical link
which is coupled to the contacts.

91
Overload relay

92
 Earth leakage protection: Devices are also used to provide
protection against faults causing earth leakage.

RCD residual current device

93
The purpose of the residual current device is to monitor the
residual current and to switch off the circuit quickly if it rises to
a pre-set level. The arrangement of an RCD is shown in
simplified form in figure below. The main contacts are closed
against the pressure of a spring, which provides the energy to
open them when the device trips. Phase and neutral currents
pass through identical coils wound in opposing directions on a
magnetic circuit, so that each coil will provide equal but
opposing numbers of ampere turns when there is no residual
current. The opposing ampere turns will cancel, and no
magnetic flux will be set up in the magnetic circuit.

94
Residual earth current passes to the circuit through the phase
coil but returns through the earth path, thus avoiding the neutral
coil, which will therefore carry less current. This means that
phase ampere turns exceed neutral ampere turns and an
alternating magnetic flux results in the core. This flux links with
the search coil which is also wound on the magnetic circuit,
inducing an e.m.f. into it. The value of this e.m.f. depends on the
residual current, so it will drive a current to the tripping system
which depends on the difference between phase and neutral
currents. When the amount of residual current, and hence of
tripping current, reaches a pre-determined level, the circuit
breaker trips, opening the main contacts and interrupting the
circuit.

95
3. Describe how electrical distribution systems are
arranged and operate.
Feeder feeds power from one point to another without being
tapped from any intermediate point. As because there is no
tapping point in between, the current at sending end is equal to
that of receiving end of the conductor. The distributors are
tapped at different points for feeding different consumers; and
hence the current varies along their entire length.

The distribution system can be either radial or ring.

96
adial Electrical Power Distribution System

In early days of electrical power distribution system, different

feeders radially came out from the substation and connected to
the primary of distribution transformer.

But radial electrical power distribution system has one major

drawback that in case of any feeder failure, the associated
consumers would not get any power as there was no alternative
path to feed the transformer. In case of transformer failure also,
the power supply is interrupted. In other words the consumer in
the radial electrical distribution system would be in darkness97
Ring Main Electrical Power Distribution
System
The drawback of radial electrical power distribution
system can be overcome by introducing a ring main
electrical power distribution system. Here one ring network
of distributors is fed by more than one feeder. In this case if one
feeder is under fault or maintenance, the ring distributor is still
energized by other feeders connected to it. In this way the
supply to the consumers is not affected even when any feeder
becomes out of service. In addition to that the ring main system
is also provided with different section isolates
at different suitable points. If any fault occurs on any
section, of the ring, this section can easily be isolated
by opening the associated
section isolators on both
sides of the faulty zone
transformer directly.

98
In this way, supply to the consumers connected to the healthy
zone of the ring, can easily be maintained even when one
section of the ring is under shutdown. The number of feeders
connected to the ring main electrical power distribution
system depends upon the following factors.

Maximum Demand of the System: If it is more, then more

numbers of feeders feed the ring.

Total Length of the Ring Main Distributors: It length is

more, to compensate the voltage drop in the line, more feeders
to be connected to the ring system.

Required Voltage Regulation: The number of feeders

connected to the ring also depends upon the permissible
allowable, voltage drop of the line.

The sub distributors and service mains are taken off may be via
distribution transformer at different suitable points on the ring
99
Substations: Substations are used to step-down the high
voltages used for transmission to a value that can be used by
industries, commercial premises and domestic households. The
one main component is therefore the transformer and normally
an auto-transformer is used to step-down from 275kV (400kV in
case of the Super Grid) to 132kV while double wound
transformers are used for the lower voltages used for
distribution purposes.

A substation contains other components in addition to the main

transformer. The substation is equipped with circuit breakers,
isolators, protection devices, earthing systems, busbars and
measuring instruments like current transformers, potential
transformers. Todays substations also contain communications
and remote control equipment so that the substations can be
monitored and controlled remotely. For this equipment a battery
back-up system is normally installed in the substation so that in
the event of a power failure the substation can still monitored
and controlled. 100
High-voltage ring main distribution.

101
Typical sub-station layout.

102
High-voltage distribution to primary substations is used by the
electricity boards to supply small industrial, commercial and
domestic consumers.
This distribution method is also suitable for large industrial
consumers
where 11 kV substations, may be strategically placed at load
centres around the factory site. Regulation 9 of the Electricity
Supply Regulations and Regulation 31 of the Factories Act
require that these substations be protected by 2.44 m high
fences or enclosed in some other way so that no unauthorized
person may gain access to the potentially dangerous equipment
required for 11 kV distribution. In towns and cities the substation
equipment is usually enclosed in a brick building, as shown in
previous slide.

103
Three-phase four-wire distribution

104
 Single-Phase and Three-Phase Distribution systems:
The generating stations supplies three-phase electrical power as
this is the more efficient way of generating electricity. Single
phase is only used at domestic households since all industries
and most big commercial centres utilise three-phase power. An
alternator generating three-phase electrical power is more
efficient and more compact than a single-phase alternator
generating the same power.

dvantages of a three-phase four-wire supply

A three-phase four-wire supply gives a consumer the choice of a
400 V
three-phase supply and a 230 V single-phase supply. Many
industrial loads such as motors require a three-phase 400 V
supply, while the lighting
load in a factory, as in a house, will be 230 V. Industrial loads
usually
demand more power than a domestic load, and more power can
be supplied by a 400 V three-phase supply than is possible with 105
Star and delta connections
The three-phase windings may be star connected or delta
connected
as shown in figure below. The important relationship between
phase and line
currents and voltages is also shown. The square root of 3 ( ) is
simply
a constant for three-phase circuits, and has a value of 1.732.

106
The delta connection is used for electrical power transmission
because only
three conductors are required. Delta connection is also used to
connect
the windings of most three-phase motors because the phase
windings
are perfectly balanced and, therefore, do not require a neutral
connection.
Making a star connection has the advantage that two voltages
become available a line voltage between any two phases, and
a phase voltage between line and neutral which is connected to
the star point.
In any star-connected system currents flow along the lines ( I L ),
through the
load and return by the neutral conductor connected to the star
point. In a
balanced three-phase system all currents have the same value
and when
they are added up by phasor addition, we find the resultant 107
Earthing Requirements and Arrangement

3-letter classification
In these descriptions, earthing system includes both the supply
and the consumer installation, and live parts include the
neutral conductor.
First letter (supply)
T The live parts in the system have one or more direct
connections to earth.
I The live parts in the system have no connection to earth or
are connected only through a high impedance.
Second letter (Consumer, Load)
T All exposed metal parts / enclosures of electrical equipment
are connected to the earth conductor which is then connected
to a local earth electrode.
N All exposed metal parts / enclosures of electrical equipment
are connected to the earth conductor which is then connected
to the ground provided by the supply system. 108
Commonly used Earthing Systems in electrical
installations

109
TN system
A system having one or more points of the source directly
grounded with the exposed metal parts being connected to
that point by protective conductors. It is further subdivided into
the following types depending on the neutral-earth
connection configuration.

110
TN-C system
A system in which the same conductor functions as the
neutral and protective conductor throughout the supply
and consumer installation (Figure 2.2).

111
TN-S system
A system in which separate conductors are provided for
neutral and protective earth functions throughout the
system. In this type of system, the utility provides a separate
earth conductor back to the substation. This is most commonly
done by having a grounding clamp connected to the sheath of
the supply cable which provides a connection to the earth
conductor of the supply side and the grounding terminal of the
consumer installation (Figure 2.3).

112
TN-S system

113
TN-C-S system
A system in which the neutral and protective functions are
done by a single conductor in a part of the system. In this
system, in supply side neutral and protective earth are
combined, but they are separated in the installation. This is also
called as protective multiple earthing (PME for short). The
earthing terminal of the consumer installation is connected to
the suppliers neutral. Any breakage of the common neutral
earth wire, called sometimes as PEN (protective earth and
neutral) conductor, can result in the enclosures of electrical
equipment inside the premises assuming line voltage when
there is insulation failure. It is therefore essential to maintain the
connection integrity of this common neutral-earth conductor
(Figure 2.4).

114
115
TN-C-S system

116
TT System
No earth provided by supplier; installation requires own earth
rod (common with overhead supply lines) (Figure 2.5).

117
TT System

118
 LO 4. Explain and understand how electrical
energy is used to support electrical technology
applications

119
1. Describe the electrical technology used in
automated processes, industrial automation and in
healthcare centres (hospitals and clinics).
Electrical Technology in Industry: All modern industry relies
on the continuous and reliable supply of electrical power.
Industrial automated processes, control systems and robotics
operate on electrical power and it is therefore important that a
continuous and reliable supply is available. A large and medium
industries are normally supplied directly, normally on dedicated
power lines, from substations so that the problem of power
interruption is mitigated. This is especially the case for major
hospitals. Notwithstanding this, faults still can and do occur, so
most industries and hospitals have back-up systems to provide
an uninterrupted power supply to essential services.

120
Standby power is usually supplied by backup generators. These
generators are normally connected to circuits where it is
essential to have a continuous supply. Such essential services
would be:
Operating theatres in hospitals,
Sensitive medical equipment like MRI, CT scanners, life
support systems and ITUs,
Furnaces and ovens in industries,
Cooling equipment and climate-controlled areas,
Lighting in general normally a subset of the lighting facilities
are kept on during a power failure or blackout to avoid having
areas in total darkness,
Computer systems and servers,
Communications equipment (wired network and cellular
network).

121
In addition to standby generators, uninterruptible power
supplies, UPS, are installed in most of these critical industries.
These UPS consist of a bank of batteries whose main function is
to provide continuity of supply before the standby generators
kick-in. One possible setup is shown in figure below which is a
one line diagram but it obviously represents a three-phase
system. Further redundancy can be
incorporated in such a
system by having a
second generator
installed and
interconnected such
that both generators
can be synchronised.
If each of the generators
can handle the full load
demanded by the critical
service, then the system
has built-in redundancy
in case one of the 122
Normal operation

Power cut operation

123
UPS out of order operation

Determining the correct size of standby generator and UPS is an

important exercise. The first part of the exercise concerns a
careful consideration of what is considered to constitute the
essential services. Next the power requirement of such services
has to be carefully determined. The total load demand can then
be estimated and the required standby generator and UPS 124
capacities can be determined.
Bank of batteries

125
Automated processes, robotics and control systems: The
manufacturing industry relies on electrical technology for very
important applications. Automated processes rely on control
systems for their operation as the mechanical systems
(conveyor belts, movable arms, x-y tables, pick and place arms,
loading and unloading stations, etc) require precise drive
electronics for the precise movement and complex assemblies
that they produce. Robotics is normally a generic term that
refers to a mechanical system which uses electricity as its
source of energy while being strictly controlled by a
computerised control system. In the manufacturing industry
robotics is employed for automated processes. Normally an
articulated arm performs a number of different tasks to
assemble parts of a product while this moves down the
production line. Robotics has replaced the work that was
previously carried out by unskilled workers thereby reducing
cost and improving greatly the quality of the finished product.
Robotics is another aspect of the automated process.
126
Automated process and robotics rely heavily on applications of
electrical technology. The single most important and widely
employed product in this case is the electric motor in all of its
variants and configurations: ac (3-phase, single phase,
induction type, capacitor start, series wound and inverter
driven), dc (series and compound wound and brushless) and
stepper. Automated processes also rely heavily on sensors that
are required by the control system to detect the position or
status of the mechanism. Sensors operate on many different
principles but those that rely on the inductive (magnetic) and
capacitive principle are very widely used.
Based on the electromagnetic principle, and used extensively in
industry and automated process, the solenoid and relay are two
other components which are the result of the application of
electrical technology.

127
Healthcare: Hospitals and clinics operate exclusively on
electrical energy. Therefore electrical technology applications
abound in these places. A few examples now follow:

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI): The equipment based on

the MRI principle exposes the patients body to very strong
magnetic fields. These strong magnetic fields excite the
hydrogen nuclei in the water molecules of the cells. The
correct resonant frequency is applied so that the nuclei are
excited and a radio frequency signal is emitted. The
equipment then detects and measures this signal and
determines the time it takes for it to return to its normal
state. From the information gathered the equipment is
capable of building a 3D image of the body showing the
internal organs and any abnormalities within. MRI equipment
is clearly based on the technology of generation of
electromagnetic fields and the magnetic materials used in
electromagnets such the behaviour of the field is predictable
and controllable. 128
 Uninterruptible Power Supplies (UPS): As explained
previously, the use of UPS in operating theatres is
fundamental so that critical equipment is kept working in the
event of mains outage. Battery technology is at the heart of
all UPSs. The appropriate type of battery that is required is
essential in the correct design of a UPS since, as described in
the section dealing with batteries, battery technology has
produced a multitude of different types: high density and
compact, sealed and maintenance-free, deep-discharge,
fume-free, etc.

129
 Operating Theatres: An essential item in the operating
theatre is lighting. Good lighting conditions are a
fundamental requirement in an operating theatre. It is also
important to highlight the properties that lighting in an
operating theatre should have: homogenous (shadow-free),
have good colour rendition (so that the true colour rendition
of the tissue and organs can be achieved), and be backed up
in the case of failure and should produce little heat. The
technology of discharge and neon tubes has produced lighting
sources that offer most of these requirements. More recently
light sources using the technology based on light-emitting
diodes have also become available and rapidly replacing the
discharge and neon tubes. Climate control is also vital in
the operating theatre. This is normally achieved by used of
extractor fans, cooling equipment and air-handling units. All of
these use electric motors. The electric motor technology has
produced various configurations which can be adopted for
various applications. Three-phase ac motors provide reliable
operation and compact size when compared with dc motors of
similar power rating. Three-phase ac motors have very 130
2. Describe the electrical technology used in the
entertainment industry.
The Entertainment Industry: Music festivals, theme parks
and audio/video systems all form part of the entertainment
industry.
Lighting technology is an important application of electrical
technology employed extensively in the entertainment industry.
In music festivals lighting is a predominant and integral feature
of the spectacle offered by the performing artists. Todays music
festivals have become a feast for the ears and eyes since the
light spectacle is sometimes as important as the music itself.
Lighting technology offers a multitude of lighting sources which
are extensively employed: bright halogen, fluorescent, UV
sources, strobe lights, led lights and lasers.
Audio entertainment relies heavily on loudspeakers. Todays
loudspeakers are really loud (powerful) but compact due to the
improved technology of magnets and ferromagnetic materials.
The loudspeaker design is based on the motor effect: 131
Theme parks rely a lot on the technology of electric motors. As
described in the section above (that deals with automation
processes) technology has produced a very varied selection of
motors each with particular characteristics and therefore
suitable for specific applications. In theme parks, especially on
roller coaster rides and other major attractions which involve the
movement of groups of people in bulk, big powerful motors are
employed. Such motors can be linear synchronous type. Some
extreme roller coasters use hydraulic pressure to reach really
impressive accelerations (up to 5G) but even here the electric
motor drives the pump that pushes the hydraulic.

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3. Identify and explain the applications of electrical
technology in transport.
Electrical Technology in Transport:
Electrical technology has widespread use in transportation
systems. Trains have used electricity as their prime mover for
many decades. Of special mention is the use of electricity to
power underground trains where it is clearly very difficult to use
diesel, petrol or coal driven locomotives due to pollution in the
restricted space available.
The electrification system adopted is normally differentiated by
the following:
Voltage supply used,
Current (DC or AC and the frequency in the latter case),
Contact system:
o Third rail,
o Fourth rail,
o Overhead lines.

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134
Athird railis a method of providingelectric powerto a railway
locomotive or train, through a semi-continuous rigid conductor
placed alongside or between the rails of a railway track. It is
used typically in amass transitorrapid transitsystem, which
has alignments in its own corridors, fully or almost fully
segregated from the outside environment. Third rail systems are
always supplied fromdirect currentelectricity.

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TheLondon Undergroundin England is one of the few networks
that uses a four-rail system. The additional rail carries the
electrical return that, on third rail and overhead networks, is
provided by the running rails. On the London Underground, a
top-contact third rail is beside the track, energized
at+420VDC, and a top-contact fourth rail is located centrally
between the running rails at210VDC, which combine to
provide a traction voltage of630VDC. The same system was
used forMilan's earliest underground line,Milan Metro'sline 1,
whose more recent lines use an overhead catenary or a third
rail.
The key advantage of the four-rail system is that neither running
rail carries any current. This scheme was introduced because of
the problems of return currents, intended to be carried by
theearthed (grounded)running rail, flowing through the iron
tunnel linings instead.

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Overhead line is designed on the principle of one or more
overhead wires (or rails, particularly in tunnels) situated overrail
tracks, raised to a high electrical potential by connection to
feeder stations at regular intervals. The feeder stations are
usually fed from ahigh-voltageelectrical grid.

A catenary is a system of overhead wires used to supply

electricity to a locomotive, streetcar, or light rail vehicle which is
equipped with a pantograph.
Unlike simple overhead wires, in which the uninsulated wire is
attached by clamps to closely spaced crosswires supported by
poles, catenary systems use at least two wires. The catenary or
messenger wire is hung at a specific tension between line
structures, and a second wire is held in tension by the
messenger wire, attached to it at frequent intervals by clamps
and connecting wires known as droppers. The second wire is
straight and level, parallel to the rail track, suspended over it as
the roadway of a suspension bridge is over water.
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Electric cars: It is interesting to note that the very first cars
were battery powered and the use of the internal combustion
engine was a later development. Electric cars have always
suffered from serious drawbacks, mainly:
Limited range on a single charge,
Time required to fully charge the discharged batteries,
Size and weight of the battery required to provide sufficient
power,

In the last decade or so important advances have been made

which can make the electric car a viable option in the not too
distant future. The integration of electronics to provide
supervision and monitoring of energy use has helped, along
with regenerative braking, improve efficiency. Important
advances have been made in battery manufacture and
development so that it is now possible to have a battery
powerful enough to provide acceptable performance and range
on a single charge.
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The energy to weight ratio of the battery has also improved.
Lithium-ion and lithium based variants are the preferred option
from a power to weight ratio but they have a limited shelf life
and relatively low cycle lifetime. The lead-acid is also used but
the energy density is not good although it is still the cheapest
and more durable type of battery available. Nickel Metal
Hydride provide better durability by Lithium based batteries but
they have a lower energy density. Zinc-air batteries are being
researched heavily as an alternative providing better energy
density values.
Normally the series wound DC motor is used in electric cars
as it provides maximum torque at starting and therefore
requires no heavy complicated gearboxes.
As a final note hybrid models seem to be more viable option at
the moment. In case in addition to the electric motor the car
contains a small internal combustion engine to charge the
battery providing better range and supplement power when
required. Hybrids normally use AC motors (permanent magnet,
3-phase induction and multi-phase induction motor). 140
Space Travel: On space craft photovoltaic panels are the only
means of providing continuous power. The energy generated by
photovoltaic panels is required to provide power to the
electronic equipment, sensors, lighting, heating and cooling as
well as propulsion. Unlike on earth where clouds may obscure
the sun during the day and at night no energy can be generated,
in outer space the photovoltaic panels are capable of generating
energy on a continuous basis. It is also less of a problem than
down on earth to add panels as air friction is non-existent and
the panels are weightless (although the increased mass means
more power is still required for propulsion).

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