Research Methods

1. Research design
2. Sampling,
Measurement and
Scaling
Research Design
The first task in research is defining the research
problem
The next is preparation of the design of the research
project, popularly known as the research design.
Decisions regarding what, where, when, how much,
by what means will be included in the research
design.
The research design is the conceptual structure
within which research is conducted; it constitutes
the blueprint for the collection, measurement and
analysis of data.
The overall research design may be split into
the following
The sampling design which deals with the
method of selecting items to be observed
for the given study
The observational design which relates to
the conditions under which the observations
are to be made;
The statistical design which concerns with
the question of how many items are to be
observed and how the information and data
gathered are to be analyzed
The operational design which deals with the
techniques by which the procedures
Important features of a
research design
It is a plan that specifies the sources and types
of information relevant to the research problem.

It is a strategy specifying which approach will

be used for gathering and analyzing the data.

It also includes the time and cost budgets since

most studies are done under these two
constraints.
Research design must, at least, contain

a clear statement of the research

problem

procedures and techniques to be used

for gathering information

the population to be studied

methods to be used in processing and

analyzing data.
Need of research design
It facilitates the smooth usage of the
various research operations, thereby
making research as efficient as possible
yielding maximal information with minimal
expenditure of effort, time and money
We need a research design or a plan in
advance of data collection and analysis for
our research project
Research design stands for advance
planning of the methods to be adopted for
collecting the relevant data and the
techniques to be used in their analysis,
Features of a good design
A good design is often characterized by
adjectives like flexible, appropriate,
efficient, economical and so on
A research design appropriate for a
particular research problem, usually
involves the consideration of the following
factors:
the means of obtaining information;
the availability and skills of the researcher
and his/her staff, if any;
the objective of the problem to be studied;

the nature of the problem to be studied; and

Data sampling : sources of
data
The task of data collection begins after a
research problem has been defined and
research design

Primary data are those which are collected

afresh and for the first time, and thus
happen to be original in character.

Secondary data, on the other hand, are

those which have already been collected by
someone else and which have already been
passed through the statistical process
Measurement
Process of assigning numbers to objects or
observations
Measurements can be Nominal, Ordinal or
Interval
Nominal data
are numerical in name only, because they do
not share any of the properties of the numbers
we deal in ordinary arithmetic.
For instance if we record marital status as 1, 2,
3, or 4, we cannot write 4 > 2 or 3 < 4 and we
cannot write 3 1 = 4 2, 1 + 3 = 4
Measurement
Measurements can be
Ordinal data
The data are numeric data however we cannot
do anything except set up inequalities
Consider conductivity of 10 materials and
assume we assign 10 to the best conductor
and 1 to the worst
It is possible to put 9>5 or 1<6 to compare
their conductivity, however it could be
meaningless to say 1+5=6
The greater than symbol (i.e., >) in connection
with ordinal data may be used to designate
happier than preferred to and so on.
Measurement
Measurements can be
Interval data
With this type of measurement, we can use
differences in addition to inequalities
Consider temperatures, Angles

We can put 750C > 650C to say warmer

We can put 750C - 650C = 1050C - 950C

90
0
45
0

450- 00 = 900-
450
00
Measurement scale
Nominal Scale
Nominal scale is simply a system of assigning
number symbols to events in order to label them.
Nominal scales provide convenient ways of keeping
track of people, objects and events.
The counting of members in each group is the only
possible arithmetic operation when a nominal scale is
employed
Example: one cannot usefully average the numbers
on the back of a group of football players and come
up with a meaningful value
Nominal scale is the least powerful level of
measurement. It indicates no order or distance
relationship and has no arithmetic origin.
Measurement scale
Ordinal Scale
The ordinal scale places events in order, but
there is no attempt to make the intervals of the
scale equal in terms of some rule.
Rank orders represent ordinal scales and are
frequently used in research relating to
qualitative phenomena.
For instance, if Xs position in his class is 10 and
Ys position is 40, it cannot be said that Xs
position is four times as good as that of Y.
Thus, the use of an ordinal scale implies a
statement of greater than or less than (an
equality statement is also acceptable) without
 HOW TO WRITE A
PROJECT
PROPOSAL
Project proposals are documents designed to
present a plan of action
Outline the reasons why the action is
necessary
Convince the reader to agree with and
approve the implementation of the actions
recommended
Significance
The purpose of a project proposal is to
determine if a proposed project is
Feasible

Practical

Worth pursuing.

It is usually prepared for people who are not

familiar with either your organization or your
project.
The project plan will give the reader all the
information needed about you and the
activity you have in mind.
Contents of a project proposal
1. Title
The title of the project is very significant.
2. Introduction (WHAT is this about?)
Provides a general introduction to the phenomena
or issue of interest
The issue or problem under investigation is
described, and background and/or context for
understanding the nature of the issue is provided
Answers to two main questions:

What is the project all about?

Why is the project important or worthwhile?
Contents of a project proposal
Statement of the problem
A clear, concise statement of the problem to be
solved by the proposed research or project,
usually in one to three sentences.
Justifications and explanations belong in the
"background" section.
Objectives
A concise statement identifying the purpose or
products of the research. The objective(s) should
be phrased in positive terms (e.g., to develop, to
determine, to measure, rather than broad
generalities, such as, to investigate, to study).
Contents of a project proposal
Background of the problem
A statement indicating the researcher's
understanding of the underlying principles involved
and supporting the approach being taken.
This section should be written so that a person with a
technical background, not necessarily in the subject
being researched, can understand it.
It should define key terms, such as, processes,
equipment so the reader quickly grasps the picture.
Images are often very helpful in this process. This
section should explain the options for approaching
and solving the problem, then explain which
approach will be taken in the project and why.
Contents of a project proposal
Literature review
After identifying a problem to be researched,
detail survey of what has been done in the area
is important
This section revises the literature to see the gap
between your research or project and things
that have been done
Contents of a project proposal
Methodology
The plan or approach intended to be used
Should be fully described and specify in detail
how the research project will be structured and
performed to meet each research objective.
The methodology must identify major
operational phases and relate these phases
to manpower requirements, time schedule and
cost estimates.
Contents of a project proposal
Methodology
Example: Applied Research (problem oriented)
Principles or theories to be used in the solution.
Possible solutions of problem.
Critical experiments to test the applicability of the
theory.
The kind and range of variables to be tested.
Criteria to be used for acceptance or rejection of
possible solutions.
Experimental facilities available.
Data analysis and statistical procedures.
Contents of a project proposal
Contents of a project proposal
Proposed design
It is a good idea to come up with a graphical
design for your methodology
This section clearly shows the design with
flowcharts
Video Clip Frame extract

Image resizing

No
RGB to Gray

Edge
Detection End
of Audio
Clip? database
Feature Extraction

Yes
Neural
Networks

Store Recognized
Classified Sign alphabet
Contents of a project proposal
Deliverables
Presents the end results of the project which can be
a software, a report with recommendations or just
the methodology
Proposed time frame
Presents the time required for each of the
methodology mentioned.
Budget schedule
The amount of budget required with details is
presented in this section
References
Books, Journals, the Internet could be included as
reference which have been surveyed to write the
proposal
Proposed time frame
Budget schedule
Reference
1. Author
Names 2.
Reference title
3. Publisher
4. Year