Computer Network

Figure 1-1

Data Communication System Components

WCB/McGraw-Hill  The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1998

 Data transmission

Simplex Half-Duplex Full-Duplex

Figure 2-12

Simplex

WCB/McGraw-Hill  The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1998

Figure 2-13

Half-Duplex

WCB/McGraw-Hill  The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1998

Figure 2-14

Full-Duplex

WCB/McGraw-Hill  The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1998

 Computer Networks
Computer network
connects two or more
autonomous
computers.

The computers can

be geographically
located anywhere.
 Introduction of Computer Network

• A collection of computers interconnected to exchange

information
• Need for computer networks
Intrinsically distributed information
Resource sharing
Computational power (load sharing)
Reliability
 Advantages of Computer Network

Intrinsically distributed information

•Information has to be kept at multi locations and has to
be networked together
•Example: Information in Airline and Train reservations
•Useful to group the information and place it in a
hierarchical manner
•Example: Branch Off., Zonal Off., Head Off.
•Development work
Resource sharing
When needed?
•When Information needs to be shared among users
•Example : Database, programs kept in a server
•When it is not possible to afford expensive peripherals
•Example : Fax and laser printers
Computational power
•Distributed computing
•Example : when an application requires GUI and heavy
number of crunching involving floating operations
•Load sharing
•Example : Migrating processes

Reliability
•Graceful degradation
•Entire system does not collapse when there is a collapse of
some machines in the system
•Alternative supply is available
 Connecting computers via a communication
network

Here is what a global picture of a computer network looks like.

Here you see a wide variety of computers connected together
ranging from microprocessors to super computers
 Real Computer Networks

Name Protocol Example

INTERNET TCP/IP ERNET,VSNL GIAS
BITNET IBM TIFR
USENET UUCP Access net(Dial up
nodes on shakti)
INET X.25 DOT
NICNET SATELLITE District HQ

The above slide shows some examples of real networks – the name of
the network, the protocol and an example.
Acronyms:
TCP\IP: Transmission Control Protocol and Internet Protocol
DOT: Dept of Telecommunication
UUCP: Unix to Unix Copy
 Network topology

Topology
Refers to the way different sites are interconnected

Network Topology
Refers to the way different computers are connected to
each other

Motivation
Given, let us say 100 computers, how to connect them?
• The network topology
defines the way in which
computers, printers, and
other devices are
connected. A network
topology describes the
layout of the wire and
devices as well as the
paths used by data
transmissions.
 Topology evaluation criteria

Basic cost
Cost of linking various sites

Communication cost
Site A ----->(Time) Site B

Reliability cost
What happens if a site fails

How to judge the cost issue, say?

All the following slides should be covered interactively!!
Communication Cost: This depends on the communication
media such as copper link,
satellite connection etc. But what we are interested over here is in
the cost independent of
the actual media. For e.g. how many no. of hops a message has to
make in order to reach
the destination from any given source.
Reliability Cost: This is the cost which says how reliable is
the given topology when a site fails
 Complete topology

Basic cost
High O(n^2)
Communication cost
Fast (1hop)
Reliability
High
 Complete topology (Contd.)

• It turns out that to connect n sites, we require n*(n-1)/2 links.

Hence, the basic cost is high
• and is in the order of O(n^2).
• The communication is very fast as there is only one hop required
to reach the destination
• from any given source. However, the communication cost is high
because every site is
• connected to every other site.
• Reliability is very good as there is an alternative path if one of the
link fails
 Star topology

The star topology is the most

commonly used architecture in
Ethernet LANs.
When installed, the star topology
resembles spokes in a bicycle wheel.
Larger networks use the extended star
topology also called tree topology.
When used with network devices that
filter frames or packets, like bridges,
switches, and routers, this topology
significantly reduces the traffic on the
wires by sending packets only to the
wires of the destination host.

A central computer is used to connect all sites in the network. This

central site acts as a switching element.
 Star topology
Basic cost
Linear : O(n)
Communication cost
Low : 2 Hops
Speed
Central site : Bottle neck
Reliability
Depends on central site

Basic cost to connect n sites is same as the number of sites i.e.

O(n). Every node is
connected to the central node. Thus, if there are n nodes, then n
lines are needed to ensure
connectivity. Hence, the basic cost of connecting the nodes is O(n).
Communication cost is low (good) as it requires just two hops for a
site to connect to another
site.
Reliability of the star topology depends on the central element
which can be the bottleneck
 Ring topology
A frame travels around the ring,
stopping at each node. If a node
wants to transmit data, it adds
the data as well as the
destination address to the frame.
The frame then continues around
the ring until it finds the
destination node, which takes the
data out of the frame.
Single ring – All the devices on
the network share a single
cable
Dual ring – The dual ring
topology allows data to be sent
in both directions.
Each site is connected to its neighbors as shown in the diagram in the
slide above
 Ring topology (contd..)

Basic cost
Linear : O(n)
Communication cost (Worst case)
Unidirectional : n - 1
Bidirectional : n/2
Reliability (Partition)
Unidirectional : 1 site
Bidirectional : 2 site

The basic cost to connect n sites is O(n).

Communication cost depends on whether the site is uni-

directional or bi-directional. The communication cost is high for a
uni-directional ring topology , say for e.g. the site that is the
most far away from any given site is (n-1) site
 Linear bus

All sites share a common communication medium , only one site

can communicate at a time.
 Linear bus (contd..)

Commonly referred to as a linear bus, node

all the devices on a bus topology are
connected by one single cable.

Basic cost
Linear : O(n)
Communication cost
Link is the bottleneck
Reliability
Link
Transmission MEdium
Components Of Network
Physical Media
Interconnecting Devices
Computers
Networking Software
Applications
 Open Systems
Interconnection (OSI)
International
Model
standard organization (ISO)
established a committee in 1977 to develop an
architecture for computer communication.
Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference
model is the result of this effort.
In 1984, the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)
reference model was approved as an international
standard for communications architecture.
Term “open” denotes the ability to connect any
two systems which conform to the reference model
and associated standards.
 OSI Reference Model
The OSI model is now considered the primary
Architectural model for inter-computer
communications.
The OSI model describes how information or data
makes its way from application programmes
(such as spreadsheets) through a network
medium (such as wire) to another application
programme located on another network.
The OSI reference model divides the problem of
moving information between computers over a
network medium into SEVEN smaller and more
manageable problems .
This separation into smaller more manageable
functions is known as layering.
 OSI Layer model
• Deals with the connection and communication among open systems
• Has a layered approach which helps in
– Reducing the design complexity of each layer
– Helps in shielding the implementation details of the services offered
by each layer
• Each layer provides services to the layer above
• Different protocols are followed between corresponding layers in Sender
and Receiver

The OSI model is based on a proposal developed by the International

Standard Organization.
(ISO) as a first step towards standardizing the protocols used in the
different layers. This
model is called ISO OSI (Open System Interconnection) Reference
Model because it deals
with the connection of systems that are open for communication with
other systems
otherwise called as open systems.
The OSI defined seven layers for a computer network architecture.
A protocol is a mutually acceptable language between two systems
which may be defined as a set of rules governing the exchange of data.
A protocol states very clearly what is
OSI Reference Model: 7
Layers
 7 Layers
7. Application Layer Please
All
6. Presentation Layer People Do
5. Session Layer Seem Not
4. Transport Layer To Trust
Need Sales
3. Network Layer
Data Person’s
2. Data Link Layer Approach
Processing
1. Physical Layer
Tasks involved in sending
letter
OSI Model

Physical Layer
Provides physical interface for transmission of
information.

Defines rules by which bits are passed from one

system to another on a physical communication
medium.
Covers all - mechanical, electrical, functional and
procedural - aspects for physical communication.
Such characteristics as voltage levels, timing of
voltage changes, physical data rates, maximum
transmission distances, physical connectors, and
other similar attributes are defined by physical
layer specifications.
OSI Model

Data Link Layer

Data link layer attempts to provide reliable
communication over the physical layer interface.

Breaks the outgoing data into frames and

reassemble the received frames.
Create and detect frame boundaries.
Handle errors by implementing an
acknowledgement and retransmission scheme.
Implement flow control.
Supports points-to-point as well as broadcast
communication.
Supports simplex, half-duplex or full-duplex
communication.
OSI Model

Network Layer
Implements routing of frames (packets)
through the network.

Defines the most optimum path the packet

should take from the source to the destination
Defines logical addressing so that any endpoint
can be identified.
Handles congestion in the network.
Facilitates interconnection between
heterogeneous networks (Internetworking).
The network layer also defines how to
fragment a packet into smaller packets to
accommodate different media.
OSI Model

Transport Layer
Purpose of this layer is to provide a reliable
mechanism for the exchange of data between two
processes in different computers.

Ensures that the data units are delivered error free.

Ensures that data units are delivered in sequence.
Ensures that there is no loss or duplication of data
units.
Provides connectionless or connection oriented
service.
Provides for the connection management.
Multiplex multiple connection over a single
channel.
OSI Model

Session Layer
Session layer provides mechanism for controlling
the dialogue between the two end systems. It
defines how to start, control and end conversations
(called sessions) between applications.
This layer requests for a logical connection to be
established on an end-user’s request.
Any necessary log-on or password validation is also
handled by this layer.
Session layer is also responsible for terminating the
connection.
This layer provides services like dialogue discipline
which can be full duplex or half duplex.
Session layer can also provide check-pointing
mechanism such that if a failure of some sort occurs
between checkpoints, all data can be retransmitted
from the last checkpoint.
OSI Model

Presentation Layer
Presentation layer defines the format in
which the data is to be exchanged between
the two communicating entities.
Also handles data compression and data
encryption (cryptography).
 Application Layer
Application layer interacts with application
programs and is the highest level of OSI
model.
Application layer contains management
functions to support distributed
applications.
Examples of application layer are
applications such as file transfer, electronic
mail, remote login etc.
 Remember
• A convenient aid for remembering the OSI
layer names is to use the first letter of each
word in the phrase:
• All People Seem To Need Data Processing

• Please Do Not Trust Sales Person

Approach
 OSI in Action
A message begins at the top
application layer and moves
down the OSI layers to the
bottom physical layer.
As the message descends,
each successive OSI model
layer adds a header to it.
A header is layer-specific
information that basically
explains what functions the
layer carried out.
Conversely, at the receiving
end, headers are striped from
the message as it travels up
the corresponding layers.
 Routing devices
• Repeaters
• Bridges
• Routers
• Gateway
 Repeater
• A repeater receives a signal, regenerates it, and
passes it on.
• It can regenerate and retime network signals at the
bit level to allow them to travel a longer distance
on the media.
• It operates at Physical Layer of OSI
• The Four Repeater Rule for 10-Mbps Ethernet
should be used as a standard when extending LAN
segments.
• This rule states that no more than four repeaters
can be used between hosts on a LAN.
• This rule is used to limit latency added to frame
travel by each repeater.
 Hub
• Hubs are used to connect
multiple nodes to a single
physical device, which
connects to the network.
• Hubs are actually multiport
repeaters.
• Using a hub changes the
network topology from a
linear bus, to a star.
• With hubs, data arriving
over the cables to a hub port
is electrically repeated on all
the other ports connected to
the same network segment,
except for the port on which
the data was sent.
 Bridge
• Bridges are used to logically separate
network segments within the same
network.
• They operate at the OSI data link layer
(Layer 2) and are independent of
higher-layer protocols.
• The function of the bridge is to make
intelligent decisions about whether or
not to pass signals on to the next
segment of a network.
• When a bridge receives a frame on the
network, the destination MAC address is
looked up in the bridge table to
determine whether to filter, flood, or
copy the frame onto another segment
• Broadcast Packets are forwarded
 Switch
• Switches are Multiport Bridges.
• Switches provide a unique network segment on each port,
thereby separating collision domains.
• Today, network designers are replacing hubs in their wiring
closets with switches to increase their network performance
and bandwidth while protecting their existing wiring
investments.
• Like bridges, switches learn certain information about the data
packets that are received from various computers on the
network.
• Switches use this information to build forwarding tables to
determine the destination of data being sent by one computer
to another computer on the network.