Invitation to Research

RESEARCH CONCEPTS & TERMINOLOGY

Roger Clarke, Xamax Consultancy, Canberra

Visiting Professor, CSIS, Uni of Hong Kong
Visiting Fellow, Australian National University

http://www.anu.edu.au/people/Roger.Clarke/...
...Res /40-CTerm.ppt

ebs, 16-20 January 2003

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 Research Terminology
'Research Methodology'
The study of research methods
A singular that does not admit of a plural

'Research Technique'
A specific means, approach or tool-and-its-use, whereby
data is gathered and analysed, and inferences are drawn

'Research Method'
The manner in which a particular project is undertaken
It comprises one or more research techniques

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 Alternative Motivations for Research

Pure Research
because its there
contribute to abstract, theoretical understanding
Applied Research
I have a hammer, so go and find me a nail
Instrumentalist Research
I have a problem, so go and find me a solution

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 The Nature of Research Outcomes
Exploratory Predictive
The first depiction of Statement of what occurrences
something new will arise
Descriptive Systemic explanation of how
The depiction of a behaviours will arise
behaviour or a domain
Statement and explanation of
Explanatory
the effect particular
Systemic explanation of
interventions will have
how past behaviours arose
Ascription of causes to
Normative
prior occurrences Statement of interventions
necessary to achieve desired
outcomes
Statement of desired outcomes
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 The Nature of Data
(Measurement Scales)
Quantitative
Ratio a natural zero
Cardinal / Interval no natural zero
Ranked Ordinal sequence (numbers)
Qualitative
Category Ordinal sequence (text)
Nominal differentiation
Dichotomous it is or it isnt

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 Likert Scales
A contrived Ranked Ordinal Scale
much-used in attitudinal research
Usually 5, 7 or 9 choices
Usually anchored by end-points such as
Strongly Disagree ... Strongly Agree
and with a neutral-sounding mid-point
Usually very long lists of questions
The data is generally processed
as though it were on an Interval Scale

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 Characteristics of Data Collection
Passive (Observation)
or Active (Response Elicitation)
Purpose: Disguised or Openly Declared
Structured, Semi-Structured or Unstructured
In Person, By Telephone,
By Written Form (e.g. Mail),
By Email/Web-Form,
By Mechanical Means

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 Unit of Analysis
A Person
An Event
An Object
A Body of Individuals
Group, Organisational Unit, Organisation
A Relationship, e.g. a Dyad
An Aggregate
Census District, Industry Segment or Sector

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 Time Horizon
Snapshot
Cross-Sectional (snapshots of multiples)
Longitudinal

Study Setting
Contrived or Naturalistic
Researcher Interference degree and nature

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 An Eternal Tension in Research
Relevance vs. Rigour
Associations with Rigour
Independence, through Pure Research Motivation
Outcomes that are Explanatory
Quantitative Data / Ratio Scales / Statl Analysis
Determinable Causal Relationships
Associations with Relevance
Motivation that is Instrumental, or Applied
Outcomes that are Predictive and Normative
Whatever Data is Collectible
Complex Interdependencies

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 The Concept of Causality
One or more Variables (the Cause) are asserted to
determine another Variable (the Effect)
Determinant Cause
That factor which is the necessary and sufficient
condition for some subsequent effect
Probabilistic Causes
Those factors that are necessary but individually
not sufficient conditions for some subsequent
effect

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 Evidence of Causality

Co-variation / Correlation
Time Order, and Chaining
Absence of other variables that
might be the real cause
Plausibility / Systemic Relationship

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 Test Case

I am a manufacturer of raincoats.
I want to increase sales.
I increase my advertising budget by 100%.
Sales go up 20%.
What is the relationship between the increase in
the advertising budget and the increase in sales?

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 Weather
Advertising
Effect
Cause
Sales
Fashion
Budget

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 Sales
Advertising
Fashion,
Moderating
Cause,
Effect, or
or or
Weather
Independent
Dependent
Interacting
Budget
Variables
Variable

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 Extraneous
Advertising
Fashion,
Moderating
Sales
Competitors
Cause,
Effect, or
or or
Weather
Ad
Confounding
Independent
Dependent
Interacting
Budget
Campaign
Variables
Variable

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 Advertising
Fashion,
Moderating
Sales
Extraneous
Competitors
Intervening
Cause,
Effect, or
or or
Weather
Campaign
Ad
Confounding
Independent
Dependent
Interacting
Budget
Variable
Campaign
Variables
Variable

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 Systems Thinking, Modelling, Cybernetics
Implications for Causality
Systems Thinking and Modelling underline
the interconnectedness of phenomena,
i.e. they are oriented towards holism / gestalt
Measures of Dependent Variables arise from a constellation of
many Independent Variables
Their interdependence may be too complex
to be able to expressed by simple rules
Cybernetics suggests that Independent Variables may be
subject to influence by Dependent Variables
Hence the notion of Causality appears nave

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