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Ceramic
Introduction
An inorganic compound consisting of a metal (or semi metal) and one or more nonmetals.
Classification of Ceramics :
traditional ceramics
industrial / engineering or high-tech ceramic materials
glasses
Properties of ceramic
high hardness and stiffness (rigid) but low ductility (brittle) of ceramic materials-
characterized by covalent and ionic bonding which are stronger than metallic bonding in
metals,
The strong bonding also provides these materials with high melting temperatures and
some tend to degrade rather than melt.
The tightly held electrons in ceramic molecules make material poor thermal and
electrical conductors -Metals are good conductors of heat and electricity due to the free
electrons in the metallic bond).
Lesser thermal expansion coefficients than metals.
Most ceramic materials are lighter than metals and heavier than polymers.
Classification of ceramic
Traditional ceramic Modern /industrial/engineering
ceramic
General made from minerals occurring in nature synthetically produced from raw materials
made from three basic components (clay, consists of pure or nearly pure
flint and feldspar) compounds such as aluminium oxide,
Clay silicon carbide and silicon nitride .
Flint (rock of very fine-grained silica, SiO2)
Feldspar (crystalline minerals consisting of
aluminium silicates, potassium, calcium or
sodium)
Application Structural (bricks, pipes, floor and roof Aerospace (engine, missile nose cone,
tiles) rocket nozzle)
Refractories ( kiln linings, gas fire Biomedical (Artificial bone; Dentistry
radiant, steel and glass making crucibles) applications, teeth)
Whitewares (tableware, wall tiles, Electronic (Capacitors
pottery products, and sanitary ware) Integrated Circuit packages, Transducers,
Insulator)
Optical ( lense, switches, laser amplifier)
Example Alumina, zirconia, carbides (tungsten silicon carbide in high-temperature areas
carbide, silicon carbide), nitrides (cubic of automotive gas turbine engines and
boron nitride, titanium nitride, etc), aluminium oxide in the support base for
cermets. integrated circuit chips in a thermal
conduction module.
Classification of ceramic
Traditional ceramic Modern /industrial/engineering
ceramic
Processing Ceramics are manufactured by Fine Ceramics are manufactured
step mixing, shaping and firing natural using highly purified natural raw
minerals including pottery stones, materials, artificial raw materials
feldspar and clay synthesized through chemical
processes and other non-naturally
occurring compounds.
After shaping, the green parts are dried and fired (sintered) the material.
Crushing
Reduction of large lumps from the mine to smaller
sizes for subsequent further reduction. Crushing of
materials is accomplished by compression against
rigid surfaces or by impact against surfaces in a rigid
constrained motion.
(a) jaw crushers large jaw toggles back and forth to
crush lumps against a hard, rigid surface.
(b) gyratory crushers a gyrating cone to compress
lumps against a rigid surface.
(c) roll crushers ceramic lumps are squeezed between
rotating drums.
(d) hammer mills rotating hammers impacting the
material to break up the lumps.
Crushing
Advantages:
High production rate with automation.
Low tooling cost.
Limitations:
Limited to axis-symmetric parts.
Limited dimensional accuracy.
Extrusion
The clay mixture containing 20 30% of water, is forced through a
die opening by screw-type equipment.
It is used to produce long sections of uniform cross-section, which
are then cut to required piece length.
It utilizes a screw-type action to assist in mixing the clay and
pushing the plastic material through the die opening.
It is widely used to make hollow bricks, shaped tiles, drain pipes,
tubes and insulators.
Advantages:
Hollow shapes and small diameters.
High production rate.
Limitations:
The cross-section of the extruded product must be constant and
limited thickness.
Semidry Pressing
The proportion of water in the starting clay is
typically in the range from 10% to 15%.
Uses high pressure to overcome the materials
low plasticity and force it to flow into a die cavity.
Flash is often formed due to excess clay being
squeezed between the die sections.
Advantages:
Close control of dimensional tolerances as in P/M.
High production rates with automation.
Limitations:
Used for simple shapes.
Density variation in parts with high length-to-diameter ratios.
Dies, usually made of carbides or hardened steel, must have high wear
resistance to withstand the abrasive ceramic particles.
Equipment can be expensive.
Mechanized ceramic shaping
Plastic forming is a process in which a plastic
clay slug is pressed between upper and lower
mold, contained in metal ring.
The mold is made from porous material so that
when the vacuum is drawn on the back of the
mold halves, moisture is removed from the clay.
The mold section is then open , using a positive
air pressure to prevent the part from sticking to
the mold
Drying and firing
Drying
Drying was done to eliminate moisture(~20%) and cause shrinkage.
Shrinkage is a problem because water contributes volume to the piece
and when it is removed the volume is reduced (piece shrinks).
This is done in drying chambers by a combination of convection and
radiation using infrared sources.
Drying times range from a quarter of an hour for thin sections and several
days for very thick sections.
Firing/Sintering
The green piece lacks of hardness and strength; it must be fired to fix the
part shape and achieve hardness and strength in the finished ware.
Firing is the heat treatment process that sinters the ceramic material; it is
performed in a furnace called a kiln.
In sintering, the bonds are developed between the ceramic grains and this
is accompanied by densification and reduction of porosity.
FIGURE 18.6 Shrinkage of wet clay caused by the removal of water during
drying. Shrinkage may be as much as 20% by volume. Source: After F.H. Norton
Modern ceramic
Modern ceramics, : other substances such as binders
and additives are used during shaping to impart
certain characteristics.
Function of additives:
binder for holding ceramic particles together.
lubricant for mold release and to reduce internal
friction between particles during moulding.
wetting agent to improve mixing.
plasticizer to make the mix more plastic and
formable.
agents control foaming and sintering.
deflocculent to make the ceramic-water
suspension uniform (eg. Na2Co3). T
Processing of modern ceramic
Cold isostatic pressing
Hot isostatic pressing
Dry pressing
Hot pressing
Extrusion
Tape casting
Injection casting
Cutting
Grinding /polishing
Cold isostatic pressing
This forming method involves pressing dried and granulated
raw materials into a shape close to that of the finished
product.
The granulated raw materials are poured into a rubber mold.
The mold is then put in a high-pressure container, where
hydraulic pressure is applied evenly from all directions
(isostatic pressing) in order to provide uniform, highly dense
compaction.
This method is ideal for forming products with large
dimensions.
Hot isostatic pressing
In this process, gas pressure is applied isostatically at high
temperatures to enhance sintering and produce dense
bodies.
After materials are pre-sintered, and their density is
increased to almost 95 percent of the theoretical density,
they are placed in a pressure container equipped with a
furnace.
Gas pressure is then applied isostatically at 1,000 to 2,000
atmospheres while being heated.
Dry pressing
This forming method involves filling a die with dried
and granulated raw materials, and pressing them
into a shape close to that of the finished product.
Granulated raw materials fill a metallic mold, and
pressure is applied from the top and bottom
(uniaxial press) to achieve highly dense compaction.
This method is ideal for mass-producing semi-
complex machinery parts which require high levels
of dimensional accuracy.
Hot pressing
This forming method involves applying pressure at high temperatures in
order to reduce porosity (voids) and produce dense sintered bodies.
A carbon mold is filled with raw powder, which is then heated and
pressurized simultaneously from the top and bottom to make a sintered
body.
This method yields ceramic bodies of simple shapes.
Extrusion
This is a forming method in which
dried and granulated raw materials
are mixed with water, binder, a
plasticizing agent and a dispersing
agent.
The resulting clay-like, plastic body
is then extruded into the desired
shape under pressure.
This method is ideal for long
products with continuous and
unchanging cross-sections.
Tape casting
This method is used to produce continuous thin compacts using
slurries composed of raw powder, binder and solvating media.
The tape casting process generally employs a "doctor blade" to
spread the slurry into a thin film.
This process is ideal for preparing the "green" (unfired ceramic)
tape used in manufacturing multilayer ceramic integrated circuit
packages and ceramic chip capacitors.
Injection/casting
This is a forming method in which dried and granulated raw materials are mixed
with additives to provide a degree of fluidity.
The raw material is then pressure-filled into a forming die that gives it a shape
close to that of the finished product.
In the injection molding process, raw materials are mixed with resin in order to
provide the necessary degree of fluidity, and then injected into the molding die.
The mold is then cooled to harden the binder and produce a "green" compact
part (also known as an unsintered powder compact).
In the casting process, mixed raw materials are combined with solvating media
and a dispersant, and then fed into an absorbent die.
The materials are then dehydrated and solidified to make a compact.
Both methods are suitable for complex, three-dimensionally shaped products
requiring high levels of dimensional accuracy.
Cutting
Because ceramics are very hard, cutting them after they have
been sintered requires considerable energy and specialized
tools such as diamond wheels.
Considering this, engineers strive to cut or process ceramics
into a shape as close to the finished shape as possible before
sintering, which involves estimating the degree of shrinkage that
will take place during the sintering process.
Super hard tools and drills are used in this process.
Spinning
Similar to centrifugal casting of metals.
It is used to produce funnel-shaped components such as
the back sections of cathode ray tubes for televisions and
computer monitors.
A gob of molten glass is dropped into a conical mold
made of steel.
The mold is rotated so that centrifugal force causes the
glass to flow upward and spread itself on the mold
surface.
The faceplate (front of the viewing screen) is later
assembled to the funnel using a sealing glass of low
melting point.
Pressing
Widely used process for mass production of glass pieces such
as dishes, bakeware, headlight lenses, TV tube faceplates and
similar items that are relatively flat.
A gob of molten glass is fed into a mold cavity using a gob
feeder to feed the right amount of molten glass from the
furnace into the mold.
The gob is then compressed into shape by a plunger, the
plunger retracts and the finished product is released
Blowing
Blowing is performed on highly automated equipment.
One of the method is known as press-and-blow, which is a pressing
operation followed by a blowing operation. A glass gob is fed into a
mold and pressed by a plunger.
The partially formed piece, called a parison, is then transferred to a
larger mold cavity and blown to complete the shape forming.
The process is suited to the production of wide-mouth containers. A
split mold is used in the blowing operation for part removal.
Shaping of Flat Plate/Sheet Glass
Processes for producing flat glass such as sheet and plate glass: