Quantitative Data Analysis: © 2009 John Wiley & Sons LTD

Chapter 4.4.
Quantitative Data Analysis
2009 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. 1

www.wileyeurope.com/college/sekaran
Getting the Data Ready for Analysis
Data coding: assigning a number to the participants

responses so they can be entered into a database.
Data Entry: after responses have been coded, they can

be entered into a database. Raw data can be entered
through any software program (e.g., SPSS)

Editing Data
An example of an illogical response is an outlier response. An

outlier is an observation that is substantially different from the
other observations.
Inconsistent responses are responses that are not in harmony

with other information.
Illegal codes are values that are not specified in the coding
instructions.

Transforming Data

Getting a Feel for the Data

Frequencies

Descriptive Statistics: Central Tendencies
and Dispersions

Reliability Analysis

INFERENTIAL STATISTICS:
HYPOTHESIS TESTING
DESCRIPTIVE vs INFERENTIAL STATISTICS

Descriptive statistics:
describe a set of data sampled using
descriptive measures.
Inferential statistics:
draw conclusions about characteristics of
population based on sampled data.
Inferential Statistics
INFERENTIAL ANALYSIS
1) Hypothesis Testing
2) Interval Estimation
What is a Hypothesis?
Components of Hypothesis Testing
Hypotheses:
Ho null hypothesis
H1 alternative hypothesis
Significance Level,
-Probability of rejecting Ho when Ho is in fact true.
Observed Significance Level, p-value
-Probability of getting the difference strictly by
-chance, assuming Ho is true.
- P-value < Reject Ho
Hypotheses
Ho null hypothesis
-It is a statement indicating an assumed value of
the population parameter that is to be tested.
H1 alternative hypothesis
-It is a statement that is automatically accepted if
the null hypothesis is rejected.
Type I Errors, Type II Errors and Statistical
Power
Type I error (): the probability of rejecting the null
hypothesis when it is actually true.
Type II error (): the probability of failing to reject the

null hypothesis given that the alternative hypothesis is
actually true.
Statistical power (1 - ): the probability of correctly

rejecting the null hypothesis.

One-tailed or Two-tailed Test
Nondirectional, two-tailed test:
- H1: pop parameter value
Directional, right-tailed test:
-H1: pop parameter > value
Directional, left-tailed test:
- H1: pop parameter < value
Always put hypotheses in terms of population
What Are the Hypotheses?
Is the population average amount of TV
viewing 12 hours?
State the question statistically:
State the opposite statistically:
State the null hypothesis: H0:
Select the alternative hypothesis: H1:
Choosing the Appropriate Statistical Technique
2009 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

www.wileyeurope.com/college/sekaran 16
Testing Hypotheses on a Single Mean
One sample t-test: statistical technique that is used to

test the hypothesis that the mean of the population from
which a sample is drawn is equal to a comparison
standard.

Testing Hypotheses about Two Related
Means
Paired samples t-test: examines differences in same
group before and after a treatment.
The Wilcoxon signed-rank test: a non-parametric test for
examining significant differences between two related
samples or repeated measurements on a single sample.
Used as an alternative for a paired samples t-test when
the population cannot be assumed to be normally
distributed.

Testing Hypotheses about Two Related
Means - 2
McNemar's test: non-parametric method used on
nominal data. It assesses the significance of the
difference between two dependent samples when the
variable of interest is dichotomous. It is used primarily in
before-after studies to test for an experimental effect.

Testing Hypotheses about Two Unrelated
Means
Independent samples t-test: is done to see if there are
any significant differences in the means for two groups
in the variable of interest.

Testing Hypotheses about Several Means
ANalysis Of VAriance (ANOVA) helps to examine the

signicant mean differences among more than two
groups on an interval or ratio-scaled dependent
variable.

Regression Analysis
Simple regression analysis is used in a situation where
one metric independent variable is hypothesized to
affect one metric dependent variable.

Scatter plot
100
80
LKLHD_DATE
60
40
20
30 40 50 60 70 80 90
PHYS_ATTR

Simple Linear Regression
Yi 0 1 X i i
1 `0
0
1

Ordinary Least Squares Estimation
n
Minimize e
i 1
2
i
Yi
Yi
ei
Xi
SPSS
Analyze Regression Linear
Model Summary
Adjusted Std. Error of

Model R R Square R Square the Estimate
1 .841 .707 .704 5.919
ANOVA
Sum of
Model Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
1 Regression 8195.319 1 8195.319 233.901 .000
Residual 3398.640 97 35.038
Total 11593.960 98

SPSS contd
Coefficients
Unstandardized Standardized
Coefficients Coefficients
Model B Std. Error Beta t Sig.
1 (Constant) 34.738 2.065 16.822 .000
PHYS_ATTR .520 .034 .841 15.294 .000

Model validation
1. Face validity: signs and magnitudes make sense

2. Statistical validity:
Model fit: R2
Model significance: F-test
Parameter significance: t-test
Strength of effects: beta-coefficients
Discussion of multicollinearity: correlation matrix
3. Predictive validity: how well the model predicts
Out-of-sample forecast errors

SPSS
Model Summary

1 .841 .707 .704 5.919

Measure of Overall Fit: R2
R2 measures the proportion of the variation in y that is explained by the
variation in x.
R2 = total variation unexplained variation

total variation
R2 takes on any value between zero and one:

R2 = 1: Perfect match between the line and the data points.
R2 = 0: There is no linear relationship between x and y.

SPSS
Model Summary

1 .841 .707 .704 5.919
= r(Likelihood to Date, Physical Attractiveness)

Model Significance
H0: 0 = 1 = ... = m = 0 (all parameters are zero)
H1: Not H0

Model Significance
H0: 0 = 1 = ... = m = 0 (all parameters are zero)
H1: Not H0
Test statistic (k = # of variables excl. intercept)
F = (SSReg/k) ~ Fk, n-1-k

(SSe/(n 1 k)
SSReg = explained variation by regression

SSe = unexplained variation by regression

SPSS
ANOVA
Sum of
1 Regression 8195.319 1 8195.319 233.901 .000
Residual 3398.640 97 35.038
Total 11593.960 98

Parameter significance
Testing that a specific parameter is significant (i.e., j 0)
H0: j = 0
H1: j 0
Test-statistic: t = bj/SEj ~ tn-k-1
with bj = the estimated coefficient for j

SEj = the standard error of bj

SPSS contd
Coefficients
1 (Constant) 34.738 2.065 16.822 .000
PHYS_ATTR .520 .034 .841 15.294 .000

Conceptual Model
+
Physical Likelihood
Attractiveness to Date

Multiple Regression Analysis
We use more than one (metric or non-metric)

independent variable to explain variance in a (metric)
dependent variable.

Conceptual Model
Perceived
Intelligence +
+
Physical Likelihood

Model Summary

1 .844 .712 .706 5.895
ANOVA
Sum of
1 Regression 8257.731 2 4128.866 118.808 .000
Residual 3336.228 96 34.752
Total 11593.960 98
Coefficients
1 (Constant) 31.575 3.130 10.088 .000
PERC_INTGCE .050 .037 .074 1.340 .183
PHYS_ATTR .523 .034 .846 15.413 .000
Conceptual Model
Gender
Perceived
Intelligence + +
+
Physical Likelihood

Moderators
Moderator is qualitative (e.g., gender, race, class) or quantitative (e.g., level
of reward) that affects the direction and/or strength of the relation between
dependent and independent variable
Analytical representation
Y = 0 + 1X1 + 2X2 + 3X1X2
with Y = DV
X1 = IV
X2 = Moderator

Moderators
Model Summary

1 .910 .828 .821 4.601
ANOVA
Sum of
1 Regression 9603.938 4 2400.984 113.412 .000
Residual 1990.022 94 21.170
Total 11593.960 98

Moderators
Coefficients
1 (Constant) 32.603 3.163 10.306 .000
PERC_INTGCE .000 .043 .000 .004 .997
PHYS_ATTR .496 .027 .802 18.540 .000
GENDER -.420 3.624 -.019 -.116 .908
PI_GENDER .127 .058 .369 2.177 .032
interaction significant effect on dep. var.

Conceptual Model
Gender
Perceived
Intelligence + +
+
Physical Likelihood
+
Communality of +
Perceived Fit
Interests

Mediating/intervening variable
Accounts for the relation between the independent and dependent variable
Analytical representation
1. Y = 0 + 1X
=> 1 is significant
2. M = 2 + 3X
=> 3 is significant
3. Y = 4 + 5X + 6M
=> 5 is not significant
=> 6 is significant
With Y = DV
X = IV
2009 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. M = mediator
46
Step 1
Mode l Summ ary
Adjus ted St d. Error of

Model R R Square R Square the E stimate
1 .963 .927 .923 3. 020
ANOVA
Sum of
1 Regression 10745.603 5 2149.121 235.595 .000
Residual 848.357 93 9.122
Total 11593.960 98

Step 1 contd
Coefficients
1 (Cons tant) 17.094 2.497 6.846 .000
PERC_INTGCE .030 .029 .044 1.039 .301
PHYS_ATTR .517 .018 .836 29.269 .000
GENDER -.783 2.379 -.036 -.329 .743
PI_GENDER .122 .038 .356 3.201 .002
COMM_INTER .212 .019 .319 11.187 .000
significant effect on dep. var.

Step 2
Mode l Summ ary

1 .977 .955 .955 2. 927
ANOVA
Sum of
1 Regression 17720.881 1 17720.881 2068.307 .000
Residual 831.079 97 8.568
Total 18551.960 98

Step 2 contd
Coefficients
1 (Cons tant) 8.474 1.132 7.484 .000
COMM_INTER .820 .018 .977 45.479 .000
significant effect on mediator

Step 3
Mode l Summ ary

1 .966 .934 .930 2. 885
ANOVA
Sum of
1 Regression 10828.336 6 1804.723 216.862 .000
Residual 765.624 92 8.322
Total 11593.960 98

Step 3 contd
Coefficients
1 (Cons tant) 14.969 2.478 6.041 .000
PERC_INTGCE .019 .028 .028 .688 .493
PHYS_ATTR .518 .017 .839 30.733 .000
GENDER -2.040 2.307 -.094 -.884 .379
PI_GENDER .142 .037 .412 3.825 .000
COMM_INTER -.051 .085 -.077 -.596 .553
PERC_FIT .320 .102 .405 3.153 .002
insignificant effect of indep. var on dep. Var.

significant effect of mediator on dep. var.

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Chapter 4.4.

Quantitative Data Analysis

2009 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. 1

Data coding: assigning a number to the participants

Data Entry: after responses have been coded, they can

2009 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. 2

An example of an illogical response is an outlier response. An

Inconsistent responses are responses that are not in harmony

2009 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. 3

2009 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. 4

2009 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. 5

2009 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. 6

2009 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. 7

2009 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. 8

DESCRIPTIVE vs INFERENTIAL STATISTICS

Type II error (): the probability of failing to reject the

Statistical power (1 - ): the probability of correctly

2009 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. 13

2009 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

One sample t-test: statistical technique that is used to

2009 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. 17

2009 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. 18

2009 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. 19

2009 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. 20

ANalysis Of VAriance (ANOVA) helps to examine the

2009 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. 21

2009 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. 22

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Adjusted Std. Error of

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1. Face validity: signs and magnitudes make sense

2009 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. 28

Adjusted Std. Error of

2009 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. 29

R2 = total variation unexplained variation

R2 takes on any value between zero and one:

2009 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. 30

Adjusted Std. Error of

= r(Likelihood to Date, Physical Attractiveness)

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Test statistic (k = # of variables excl. intercept)

F = (SSReg/k) ~ Fk, n-1-k

SSReg = explained variation by regression

2009 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. 33

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Test-statistic: t = bj/SEj ~ tn-k-1

with bj = the estimated coefficient for j

2009 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. 35

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We use more than one (metric or non-metric)

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Adjusted Std. Error of

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Y = 0 + 1X1 + 2X2 + 3X1X2

2009 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. 42

Adjusted Std. Error of

2009 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. 43

interaction significant effect on dep. var.