Probability

Probability &
& Statistics
Statistics
Organizing & Graphing Data

1
 Introduction
• When data is collected it needs to be organized in
some way so that the pattern of the results can
be seen.
• For example, below is an unordered list of the
heights of the girls in a first year class, measured
in cm.
141, 150, 144, 145, 150, 148, 136, 134, 144, 155,
147, 151, 154
We could rearrange it from smallest to highest…

2
 Stem-and-Leaf Diagram
• A simple way to see distribution details in a data
set

METHOD: Separate the sorted data series

into leading digits (the stem) and
the trailing digits (the leaves)

3
 Graphing Data
Goals for effective data presentation:
• Present data to display essential information
• Communicate complex ideas clearly and accurately
• Avoid distortion that might convey the wrong
message

4
 Types of Data

Data

Categorical Numerical

Examples:
 Marital Status
 Are you registered to Discrete Continuous
vote?
 Eye Color Examples: Examples:
(Defined categories or  Number of Children  Weight
groups)  Defects per hour  Voltage
(Counted items) (Measured characteristics)
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 Graphical
Presentation of Data

• Data in raw form are usually not easy

to use for decision making

• Some type of organization is needed

• Table
• Graph
• The type of graph to use depends on
the variable being summarized
6
 Graphical
Presentation of Data
(continued)

• Techniques reviewed in this chapter:

Categorical Numerical
Variables Variables

• Frequency distribution • Line chart

• Bar chart • Frequency distribution
• Pie chart • Histogram and ogive
• Pareto diagram • Stem-and-leaf display
• Scatter plot

7
 The Frequency
Distribution Table
Summarize data by category

Example: Hospital Patients by Unit

Hospital Unit Number of Patients

Cardiac Care 1,052

Emergency 2,245
Intensive Care 340
Maternity 552
Surgery 4,630
(Variables are
categorical)
8
 Bar and Pie
Charts
• Bar charts and Pie charts are
often used for qualitative
(category) data
• Height of bar or size of pie slice
shows the frequency or
percentage for each category

9
 Bar Chart Example
Hospital Number
Unit of Patients

Cardiac Care 1,052

Emergency 2,245 Hospital Patients by Unit
Intensive Care 340 5000

Maternity 552
patients per year 4000
Surgery 4,630
Number of

3000

2000

1000

0
Cardiac

Surgery
ntensive

aternity
ergency
Care

10

Care
 Pie Chart Example
Hospital Number % of
Unit of Patients Total
Hospital Patients by Unit
Cardiac Care 1,052 11.93
Emergency 2,245 25.46 Cardiac Care
Intensive Care 340 3.86 12%
Maternity 552 6.26
Surgery 4,630 52.50

Emergency
Surgery 25%
53%

(Percentages
are rounded to Intensive Care
the nearest 4%
percent) Maternity 11
6%
 Pareto Diagram
• Used to portray categorical data
• A bar chart, where categories are shown in
descending order of frequency
• A cumulative polygon is often shown in the
same graph
• Used to separate the “vital few” from the
“trivial many”

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 Pareto Diagram Example
Example: 400 defective items are
examined for cause of defect:
Source of Number of
Manufacturing Error defects
Bad Weld 34
Poor Alignment 223
Missing Part 25
Paint Flaw 78
Electrical Short 19
Cracked case 21
Total 400 13
 Pareto Diagram Example
Step 1: Sort by defect cause, in descending order
(continued)
Step 2: Determine % in each category

Source of Number of defects % of Total

Manufacturing Defects
Error
Poor Alignment 223 55.75
Paint Flaw 78 19.50
Bad Weld 34 8.50
Missing Part 25 6.25
Cracked case 21 5.25
Electrical Short 19 4.75
Total 400 100%
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 Pareto Diagram Example
(continued)
Step 3: Show results graphically
Pa re to D ia g ra m : C a u s e of M a n ufa c turin g D e fe c t
6 0% 1 00%
% of defects in each category

9 0%

cumulative % (line graph)

5 0%
8 0%
(bar graph)

7 0%
4 0%

6 0%

3 0% 5 0%

4 0%

2 0%
3 0%

2 0%
1 0%

1 0%
15
0% 0%
P o o r Alig n m e n t P a in t F la w B a d W e ld M is s in g P a r t C ra c k e d c a s e E le c tr ic a l S h o r t
 Graphs for Time-Series
Data
• A line chart (time-series plot) is used to
show the values of a variable over time

• Time is measured on the horizontal axis

• The variable of interest is measured on

the vertical axis

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 Line Chart Example
Magazine Subscriptions by Year

350

300
Thousands of subscribers

250

200

150

100

50

0
17
1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006
18
 Frequency Histogram

• One of the more commonly used

pictorials in statistics is the
frequency histogram, which in some
ways similar to a bar chart and tells
how many items are in each numerical
category.

19
Example of Frequency
Histogram

20
Example of Frequency
Histogram

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 Frequency Polygon

• In this chart, the frequency of each class

is indicated by points or dots drawn at the
midpoints of each class interval.

22
Example of Frequency Polygon

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Cumulative Frequency or Ogive

• An ogive (a cumulative line graph) is best

used when you want to display the total at
any given time.
• The relative slopes from point to point will
indicate greater or lesser increases; for
example, a steeper slope means a greater
increase than a more gradual slope.

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Example of Cumulative Frequency
or Ogive

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