EXPLORATION

TECHNIQUES
Virginia McLemore
WHAT ARE THE OBJECTIVES IN
EXPLORATION?
WHAT ARE THE OBJECTIVES IN
EXPLORATION?
Establish baseline/background conditions
Find alteration zones
Find ore body
Determine if ore can be mined or leached
Determine if ore can be processed
Determine ore reserves
Locate areas for infrastructure/operations
Environmental assessment
Further understand uranium deposits
Refine exploration models
 STEPS
Define uranium deposit model
Select area

Collect and interpret regional data

Define local target area

Field reconnaissance

Reconnaissance drilling

Bracket drilling

Ore discovery
 Select Area
How do we select an area to look for
uranium?
 Select Area
How do we select an area to look for
uranium?
Areas of known production
Areas of known uranium occurrences
Favorable conditions for uranium
 COLLECT DATA
Historical data
State, federal surveys

University research programs

Archives

Company reports

Web sites

Published literature

Prospectors
 Methods
Magnetic surveys
Electromagnetic (EM, EMI),
electromagnetic sounding
Direct current (DC)
GPR (Ground penetrating
radar potential)
Seismic
Time-domain
electromagnetic (TEM)
Controlled source audio-
magnetotellurics (CSAMT)
Radiometric surveys
Induced polarization (IP)
Spontaneous potential (SP)
Borehole geophysics
Satellite imagery
Imagery spectrometry
ASTER (Advanced space-
borne thermal emissions
reflection radiometer)
AVIRIS
PIMA
SFSI
LIBS
SWIR
Multispectral
REMOTE SENSING
 Remote Sensing Techniques
Digital elevation model (DEM)
Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM)
ASTER (Advanced Spaceborne Thermal
Emission and Reflection Radiometer)
Hyperspectral remote sensing (spectral
bands, 14 and >100 bands)
NOAA-AVHRR (National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration - Advanced
Very High Resolution Radiometer
 SATELLITE Remote sensing is the science of
LANDSAT
remotely acquiring, processing and
interpreting spectral information about
the earths surface and recording
interactions between matter and
electromagnetic energy.
AIRBORNE
HYPERSPECTRAL
GROUND
Field Spectrometer

Alumbrera, Ar

Data is collected from satellite

and airborne sensors. It is then
calibrated and verified using a
field spectrometer.

CUPRITE, NV
Goldfield, NV
 Sunlight Interaction with the Data is collected in contiguous channels by special
detector arrays. Collection is done at different
Atmosphere and the Earths Surface spectral and spatial resolutions depending on the
type of sensor.
ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

Each spatial element is called a pixel. Pixel size

varies from 1/2 meters in some hyperspectral
sensors to 30 meters in Landsat and ASTER,
which are multispectral. Sensor spatial
differences and band configurations are shown
below.
The electromagnetic spectrum is a distribution of energy over specific
wavelengths. When this energy is emitted by a luminous object, it can
be detected over great distances. Through the use of instrumentation,
the technique detects this energy reflected and emitted from the
earths surface materials such as minerals, vegetation, soils, ice, water
and rocks, in selected wavelengths. A proportion of the energy is
reflected directly from the earths surface. Natural objects are
generally not perfect reflectors, and therefore the intensity of the
reflection varies as some of the energy is absorbed by the earth and
not reflected back to the sensor. These interactions of absorption and
reflection form the basis of spectroscopy and hyperspectral analysis.
Source: Bob Agars
 Imaging spectroscopy is a technique for
HYPERSPECTRAL IMAGING SPECTROSCOPY obtaining a spectrum in each position of a
large array of spatial positions so that any
one spectral wavelength can be used to
make a coherent image (data cube).
Imaging spectroscopy for remote sensing
involves the acquisition of image data in
many contiguous spectral bands with an
ultimate goal of producing laboratory
quality reflectance spectra for each pixel
in an image (Goetz, 1992b). The latter
part of this goal has not yet been reached.
The major difference from Landsat is the
ability to detect individual mineral species

and differentiate vegetation species.

Source:
CSIRO
This "image cube" from JPL's Airborne Visible/Infrared Imaging Spectrometer (AVIRIS) shows the
volume of data returned by the instrument. AVIRIS acquired the data on August 20, 1992 when it
was flown on a NASA ER-2 plane at an altitude of 20,000 meters (65,000 feet) over Moffett Field,
California, at the southern end of the San Francisco Bay. The top of the cube is a false-color
image made to accentuate the structure in the water and evaporation ponds on the right. Also
visible on the top of the cube is the Moffett Field airport. The sides of the cube are slices
showing the edges of the top in all 224 of the AVIRIS spectral channels. The tops of the sides are
in the visible part of the spectrum (wavelength of 400 nanometers), and the bottoms are in the
infrared (2,500 nanometers). The sides are pseudo-color, ranging from black and blue (low
response) to red (high response). Of particular interest is the small region of high response in the
upper right corner of the larger side. This response is in the red part of the visible spectrum
(about 700 nanometers), and is due to the presence of 1-centimeter-long (half-inch) red brine
shrimp in the evaporation pond.
 Exploration
Techniques:
Geologic Mapping

Leann M. Giese
February 7, 2008
 Mining Life Cycle
(Spiral?)
In the mine life cycle, geologic mapping falls under
Exploration, but it effects all of the life cycles

Closure
Ongoing
Operations Post-Closure

Temporary Exploration
Closure Future
Land Use
Mine
Development
Operations
(McLemore, 2008)
?????
 What is geologic
mapping?
A way to gather & present geologic
data. (Peters, 1978)
Shows how rock & soil on the earths

surface is distributed. (USGS)

Are used to make decisions on how to

use our water, land, and resources.

(USGS)

Help to come up with a model for an

ore body. (Peters, 1978)
 What is Geologic
Mapping? (continued)
To better understand
the geological features
of an area
Predict what is below
the earths surface
Show other features
such as faults and
strike and dips.
(USGS (a))

Figure 1. Graphic representation of typical

information in a general purpose geologic
map that can be used to identify geologic
hazards, locate natural resources, and
facilitate land-use planning. (After R. L.
Bernknopf et al., 1993)
 Simplified Geologic
Map of New Mexico

Topographic Map of the Valle

Grande in the Jamez
Mountains
(from NMBGMR).
 Geologic Mapping
Equipment
Field notebooks
Rock hammer
Hand Lens (10x or Hastings triplet)
Pocket knife
Magnet
Clip board
Pencils (2H-4H) and Colored Pencils
Rapidograph-type pens and Markers
Scale-protractor (10 and 50 or 1:1000 and 1:4000)
Belt pouches or field vest
30 meter tape measurer
Brunton pocket transit
GPS/Altimeters
Camera

(Compton,1985)
 Mapping types
Aerial photographs

Topographical bases

Pace and Compass

Chains

(Compton, 1985)
 Map scales
A ratio that relates a unit of measure on a
map to some number of the same units of
measure on the earth's surface.
A map scale of 1:25,000 tells us that 1 unit
of measure represents 25,000 of the same
units on the earth's surface. One inch on
the map represents 25,000 inches on the
earth's surface.
One meter or one yard or one kilometer or
one mile on a map would represent 25,000
meters or yards or kilometers or miles,
respectively, on the earth's surface. (from USGS (b))
 Map scales (continued)
Map Scale One cm on One km on One inch on One mile on
the map the Earth is the map the Earth
represents represented represents represented
on the map on the map
by by
1:2,000 20 meters 50 166.67 feet 31.68
centimeters inches

1:25,000 250 meters 4 2,083.33 2.53 inches

centimeters feet

1:100,000 1,000 1 centimeter 1.58 miles 0.634

meters inches

1:5,000,000 50,000 0.02 78.91 miles 0.013

meters centimeters inches

(from USGS (b))

 What to do first?
Most mineral deposits are found in districts
where there has been mining before, an
earlier geologist has noticed something of
importance there, or a prospector has filed a
mineral claim
Literature Search:
Library (University, Government, Engineering, or
Interlibrary loans)
State and National bureaus of mines and geological
surveys (may have drill core, well cuttings, or rock
samples available to inspect)
Mining company information
Maps and aerial photographs
Is the information creditable? Is it worth
exploring? (Peters, 1978)
 Where to go from here?
Mapping is costly and time consuming, so an area
of interest needs to be defined
Reconnaissance helps narrows a region to a
smaller area of specific interest
Reconnaissace in the U.S. usually begins at
1:250,000-scale
This large scale mapping can zone-in on areas of
interest that can then be geologically mapped in
detail (this is usually done on a 1:10,000 or
1:12,000-scale).
Individual mineral deposits can be mapped at a
1:2,000 or 1:2,400-scale to catch its smaller
significant features.
 Detailed Geological
Mapping
When mapping, we want to be quick,
because time is money, but not too quick
as to make a mistake or miss something.
Along with mapping occurs drilling,

trenching, geophysics, and geochemistry

Samples can be analyzed for Uranium

concentrations. This gives a better idea of

where to explore more or drill in an area.
 Uranium Deposit Types
Unconformity-related deposits
Metasedimentary rocks (mineralisation, fauletd, and brecciated) below and
Proterozoic SS. Above (pitchblende)
Breccia complex deposits
Hematite-rich breccia complex (iron, copper, gold, silver, & REE)
Sandstone deposits
Rollfront deposits, tabular deposits, tectonic/lithologic deposits
Surficial deposits
Young, near-surface uranium concentrations in sediments or soils (calcite,
gypsum, dolomite, ferric oxide, and halite)
Volcanic deposits
Acid volcanic rocks and related to faults and shear zones within the
volcanics (molybdenum & fluorine)
Intrusive deposits
Associated with intrusive rocks (alaskite, granite, pegmatite, and
monzonites)
Metasomatite deposits
In structurally-deformed rocks altered by metasomatic processes (sodium,
potassium or calcium introduction)

(Lambert et al., 1996)

 Uranium Deposit Types
(continued)
Metamorphic deposits
Ore body occurs in a calcium-rich alteration zone within Proterozoic
metamoprphic rocks
Quartz-pebble conglomerate deposits
Uranium recovered as a by-product of gold mining
Vein deposits
Spatially related to granite, crosscuts metamorphic or sedimentary
rocks (coffinite, pitchblende)
Phosphorite deposits
Fine-grained apatie in phosphorite horizons; mud, shale, carbonates
and SS. interbedded
Collapse breccia deposits
Vertical tubular-like deposits filled with coarse and fine fragments
Lignite
Black shale deposits
Calcrete deposits
Uranium-rich granites deeply weathered, valley-type
Other
 Some Minerals Associated
with Uranium
Uraninite (UO2)
Pitchblende (U2O5.UO3 or U3O8)
Carnotite (uranium potassium vanadate)
Davidite-brannerite-absite type uranium titanates
Euxenite-fergusonite-smarskite group
Secondary Minerals:
Gummite
Autunite
Saleeite
Torbernite
Coffinite
Uranophane
Sklodowskite

(Lambert et al., 1996)

 Example of exploring a sandstone
Uranium deposit
When looking for a sandstone-type uranium deposit in
an area that has had a radiometric survey, our first
place to focus in on the areas where radioactivity
appears to be associated with SS. Beds. (We will
disregard potassium anomalies, below-threshold
readings, unexplained areas, and radioactive noise.)
We will then map the radioactive SS. units and other
associations with our model of a SS. uranium deposit.
We will look for poorly sorted, medium to coarse
grained SS. beds that are associated with mudstones
or shales.
Detailed mapping of outcrops on a smaller scale is
now appropriate. Stratigraphic sections can be
measured and projected to covered areas.
Other radioactive areas that were disregarded may be
given a second look for other possibilities for further
investigations.
(Peters, 1978)
References
Compton, R. R. (1985). Geology in the Field. United States of America and
Canada: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Bernknopf, R. L., et al., 1993
Societal Value of Geologic Maps, USGS Circular 1111.
Lambert,I., McKay, A., and Miezitis, Y. (1996) Australia's uranium resources:
trends, global comparisons and new developments , Bureau of Resource
Sciences, Canberra, with their later paper: Australia's Uranium Resources
and Production in a World Context , ANA Conference October 2001.
http://www.uic.com.au/nip34.htm (accessed February 6, 2008).
McLemore, V. T. Geology and Mining of Sediment-Hosted Uranium Deposits:
What is Uranium?. Lecture, January 30, 2008; pp. 1-26.
New Mexico Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resources.
http://geoinfo.nmt.edu/publications/maps/home.html (accessed February 1,
2008).
Peters, W. C. (1978). Exploration and Mining Geology. United States of
America and Canada: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
U.S. Geological Survey (a).
http://ncgmp.usgs.gov/ncgmpgeomaps (accessed February 1, 2008).
U.S. Geological Survey (b).
http://id.water.usgs.gov/reference/map_scales.html (accessed February 6,
2008).
GEOPHYSICAL TECHNIQUES
Pedram Rostami
 Gravity Techniques
Introduction

Lateral density changes in the subsurface cause a

change
in the force of gravity at the surface.

The intensity of the force of gravity due to a buried

mass difference (concentration or void) is
superimposed on the larger force of gravity due to the
total mass of the earth.

Thus, two components of gravity forces are measured

at the earths surface: first, a general and relatively
uniform component due to the total earth, and second,
a component of much smaller size which varies due to
lateral density changes (the gravity anomaly).
 Applications
By very precise measurement of gravity and by
careful correction for variations in the larger
component due to the whole earth, a gravity survey
can sometimes detect natural or man-made voids,
variations in the depth to bedrock, and geologic
structures of engineering interest.

For engineering and environmental applications, the

scale of the problem is generally small (targets are
often from 1-10 m in size)

Station spacings are typically in the range of 1-10 m

Even a new name, microgravity, was invented to

describe the work.
 Gravity surveys are limited by ambiguity and the
assumption of homogeneity

A distribution of small masses at a shallow depth can

produce the same effect as a large mass at depth.

External control of the density contrast or the specific

geometry is required to resolve ambiguity questions.

This external control may be in the form of geologic

plausibility, drill-hole information, or measured densities.

The first question to ask when considering a gravity survey

is For the current subsurface model, can the resultant
gravity anomaly be detected?.

Inputs required are the probable geometry of the anomalous

region, its depth of burial, and its density contrast.

A generalized rule of thumb is that a body must be almost

as big as it is deep.
 Rock Properties
Values for the density of shallow
materials are determined from
laboratory tests of boring and bag
samples. Density estimates may also
be obtained from geophysical well
logging

Table 5-1 lists the densities of

representative rocks.

Densities of a specific rock type on a

specific site will not have more than
a few percent variability as a rule
(vuggy limestones being one
exception). However, unconsolidated
materials such as alluvium and
stream channel materials may have
significant variation in density.
 Field Work
General
Up to 50 percent of the work in a microgravity
survey is consumed in the surveying.
relative elevations for all stations need to be

stablished to 1 to 2 cm. A firmly fixed stake or

mark should be used to allow the gravity meter
reader to recover the exact elevation.
Satellite surveying, GPS, can achieve the required

accuracy, especially the vertical accuracy, only with

the best equipment under ideal conditions.
High station densities are often required. It is not

unusual for intervals of 1-3 m to be required to map

anomalous masses whose maximum dimension is
10 m.
 Field Work
General
After elevation and position surveying, actual
measurement of the gravity readings is often
accomplished by one person in areas where solo
work is allowed.
t is necessary to improve the precision of the station
readings by repetition.

The most commonly used survey technique is to

choose one of the stations as a base and to reoccupy
that base periodically throughout the working day.
The observed base station gravity readings are then
plotted versus time, and a line is fitted to them to
provide time rates of drift for the correction of the
remainder of the observations.
 Interpretation
Software packages for the interpretation of gravity data
are plentiful and powerful.

The geophysicist can then begin varying parameters in

order to bring the calculated and observed values closer
together.

Parameters usually available for variation are the vertices

of the polygon, the length of the body perpendicular to the
traverse, and the density contrast. Most programs also
allow multiple bodies.
 Magnetic Methods
Introduction
The earth possesses a magnetic field caused primarily
by sources in the core.

The form of the field is roughly the same, as would be

caused by a dipole or bar magnet located near the
earths center and aligned sub parallel to the
geographic axis.

The intensity of the earths field is customarily

expressed in S.I. units as nanoteslas (nT) or in an older
unit, gamma (g): 1 g = 1 nT = 10-3 T. Except for
local perturbations, the intensity of the earths field
varies between about 25 and 80 T over the
coterminous United States
 Many rocks and minerals are weakly magnetic or are
magnetized by induction in the earths field, and
cause spatial perturbations or anomalies in the
earths main field.

Man-made objects containing iron or steel are often

highly magnetized and locally can cause large
anomalies up to several thousands of nT.

Magnetic methods are generally used to map the

location and size of ferrous objects. Determination of
the applicability of the magnetics method should be
done by an experienced engineering geophysicist.

Modeling and incorporation of auxiliary information

may be necessary to produce an adequate work plan.
 Theory
The earths magnetic field dominates most measurementsz on
the surface of the earth.

Most materials except for permanent magnets, exhibit an

induced magnetic field due to the behavior of the material
when the material is in a strong field such as the earths.

Induced magnetization (sometimes called magnetic

polarization) refers to the action of the field on the material
wherein the ambient field is enhanced causing the material
itself to act as a magnet.

The field caused by such a material is directly proportional to

the intensity of the ambient field and to the ability of the
material to enhance the local field, a property called magnetic
susceptibility. The induced magnetization is equal to the
product of the volume magnetic susceptibility and the inducing
field of the earth:
 Theory(continue)
I=kF
k = volume magnetic susceptibility (unitless)

I = induced magnetization per unit volume

F = field intensity in tesla (T)

For most materials k is much less than 1 and, in fact, is usually

of the order of 10^-6 for most rock materials.
The most important exception is magnetite whose susceptibility
is about 0.3. From a geologic standpoint, magnetite and its
distribution determine the magnetic properties of most rocks.
There are other important magnetic minerals in mining
prospecting, but the amount and form of magnetite within a
rock determines how most rocks respond to an inducing field.
Iron, steel, and other ferromagnetic alloys have susceptibilities
one to several orders of magnitude larger than magnetite. The
exception is stainless steel, which has a small susceptibility.
 The importance of
magnetite cannot be
exaggerated. Some tests
on rock materials have
shown that a rock
containing 1 percent
magnetite may have a
susceptibility as large as
10-3, or 1,000 times larger
than most rock materials.
Table 6-1 provides some

typical values for rock

materials.
Note that the range of

values given for each

sample generally depends
on the amount of
magnetite in the rock
 Theory(continue)
Thus it can be seen that in most engineering and
environmental scale investigations, the sedimentary
and alluvial sections will not show sufficient contrast
such that magnetic measurements will be of use in
mapping the geology.

However, the presence of ferrous materials in

ordinary municipal trash and in most industrial
waste does allow the magnetometer to be effective
in direct detection of landfills.

Other ferrous objects which may be detected include

pipelines, underground storage tanks, and some
ordnance.
 Field Work
Ground magnetic measurements are
usually made with portable
instruments at regular intervals along
more or less straight and parallel lines
which cover the survey area.
Often the interval between

measurement locations (stations)

along the lines is less than the
spacing between lines.
 The magnetometer is a sensitive instrument which is
used to map spatial variations in the earths magnetic
field.

In the proton magnetometer, a magnetic field which is

not parallel to the earths field is applied to a fluid rich in
protons causing them to partly align with this artificial
field.

When the controlled field is removed, the protons

precess toward realignment with the earths field at a
frequency which depends on the intensity of the earths
field. By measuring this precession frequency, the total
intensity of the field can be determined.

The physical basis for several other magnetometers, such

as the cesium or rubidium-vapor magnetometers, is
similarly founded in a fundamental physical constant. The
optically pumped magnetometers have increased
sensitivity and shorter cycle times (as small as 0.04 s)
making them particularly useful in airborne applications.
 The incorporation of computers and non-
volatile memory in magnetometers has
greatly increased the ease of use and data
handling capability of magnetometers.

The instruments typically will keep track of

position, prompt for inputs, and internally
store the data for an entire day of work.

Downloading the information to a personal

computer is straightforward and plots of the
days work can be prepared each night.
 To make accurate anomaly maps, temporal changes
in the earths field during the period of the survey
must be considered. Normal changes during a day,
sometimes called diurnal drift, are a few tens of nT
but changes of hundreds or thousands of nT may
occur over a few hours during magnetic storms.

During severe magnetic storms, which occur

infrequently, magnetic surveys should not be made.
The correction for diurnal drift can be made by
repeat measurements of a base station at frequent
intervals.

The measurements at field stations are then

corrected for temporal variations by assuming a
linear change of the field between repeat base
station readings.
 The base-station memory magnetometer,
when used, is set up every day prior to
collection of the magnetic data.

The base station ideally is placed at least 100

m from any large metal objects or travelled
roads and at least 500 m from any power lines
when feasible.

The base station location must be very well

described in the field book as others may have
to locate it based on the written description.
 The value of the magnetic field at the base
station must be asserted (usually a value
close to its reading on the first day) and each
days data corrected for the difference
between the asserted value and the base
value read at the beginning of the day.

As the base may vary by 10-25 nT or more

from day to day, this correction ensures that
another person using the SAME base station
and the SAME asserted value will get the same
readings at a field point to within the accuracy
of the instrument.
 Interpretation.
Total magnetic disturbances or anomalies are highly
variable in shape and amplitude; they are almost always
asymmetrical, sometimes appear complex even from
simple sources

One confusing issue is the fact that most magnetometers

measure the total field of the earth: no oriented system is
recorded for the total field amplitude.

The consequence of this fact is that only the component

of an anomalous field in the direction of earths main field
is measured.

Figure 6-1 illustrates this consequence of the

measurement system

Anomalous fields that are nearly perpendicular to the

earths field are undetectable
 Additionally, the induced nature of the
measured field makes even large bodies
act as dipoles; that is, like a large bar
magnet.

If the (usual) dipolar nature of the

anomalous field is combined with the
measurement system that measures only
the component in the direction of the
earths field, the confusing nature of most
magnetic interpretations can be
appreciated
 To achieve a qualitative understanding of what is
occurring, consider Figure in the next page.

Within the contiguous United States, the magnetic

inclination, that is the angle the main field makes with
the surface, varies from 55- 70 deg.
The figure illustrates the field associated with the

main field, the anomalous field induced in a narrow

body oriented parallel to that field, and the combined
field that will be measured by the total-field
magnetometer.
The scalar values which would be measured on the

surface above the body are listed.

From this figure, one can see how the total-field

magnetometer records only the components of the

anomalous field.
Uranium Exploration
 Magnetic
Magnetic. Palaeochannel magnetic (either
positive or negative) anomalies may be defined
if high-resolution surveys are used and if there
are sufficient magnetic minerals in the channels
or measurable magnetic contrast between the
channel sediments and bedrock.
Cainozoic palaeochannels are not usually visible

on regional magnetic data, as they are relatively

shallow features, but careful use of detailed
surveys may assist in locating channel deposits.
 Gravity
Gravity anomalies in the earths
gravitational field can in some cases be
used to define the thickness and extent
of the fluvial sediments, and hence
palaeochannels, due to the contrast in
density between the sediments and
fresh bedrock. For example, the density
of sand and clay is ~1.8g/cc and granitic
basement is 2.7 g/cc (Berkman 1995).
Hoover et al. (1992)
Hoover et al. (1992)
 GEOCHEMICAL SAMPLING
Ground water
Surface water

Stream sediments

Soils

Biological

Ore samples

Radon

Track etch (identify radiaoactivity)

 Surface Sampling in
Exploration
Introduction
Sample? Sampling?
Sampling Programs
Bias and Error in Sampling
Quality Control
Surface Sampling Methods
Sample Handling
Documentation Requirements
Conclusion
References
 Introduction
Sampling methods vary from simple
grab samples on existing exposures
to sophisticated drilling methods.
As a rule, the surface of the

mineralization is obscured by various

types of overburden, or it is
weathered and leached to some
depth, thereby obscuring the nature
of the mineralization."
 What is a sample?
What is sampling?
A sample is a finite part of a statistical
population whose properties are studied to
gain information about the whole (Webster,
1985).
Sampling is the act, process, or technique of
selecting a suitable sample,
or

a representative part of a population for the

purpose of determining parameters or
characteristics of the whole population.
Why Sample?
 Sampling Programs
Reconnaissance:
(1) check status of land ownership, (2) physical
characteristics of area, (3) mining history of the area.
Field inspection:
surface grab sampling over all exposures of gravel,
few seismic cross section, geobotanical study, and
survey for old workings.

Sampling Plan
Special Problems Associated with Sampling:
Sample Processing or Washing:
Data Processing
Data processing consists of record keeping, reporting
values, and assay procedures.
 Sampling Plan
Defining the population of concern
Specifying a sampling frame, a set of
items or events possible to measure
Specifying a sampling method for selecting
items or events from the frame
Determining the sample size
Implementing the sampling plan
Sampling and data collecting
Reviewing the sampling process
 Sample Size
The question of how large a sample should
be is a difficult one. Sample size can be
determined by various constraints such as
Cost.
nature of the analysis to be performed
the desired precision of the estimates one
wishes to achieve
the kind and number of comparisons that
will be made,
the number of variables that have to be
examined simultaneously
 Bias and Error in Sampling
A sample is expected to mirror the
population from which it comes, however,
there is no guarantee that any sample will
be precisely representative of the
population from which it comes.
biased:
when the selected sample is systematically

different to the population.

The sample must be a fair representation of the population we are interested
in.
Random errors
The sample size may be too small to produce a
reliable estimate.
There may be variability in the population, the greater
the variability the larger the sample size needed.
 Quality Control
Responsibility for maintaining consistency
and ensuring collection of data of
acceptable and verifiable quality through
the implementation of a QA/QC program.

All personnel involved in data collection

activities must have the necessary
education,
experience, and skills to perform their
duties.
 Selecting Methods and Equipment
Soil and sediment samples may be
collected using a variety of methods and
equipment depending on the following:

type of sample required

site accessibility,
nature of the material,
depth of sampling,
budget for the project,
sample size/volume requirement,
project objectives
 Surface Sampling Methods
Near-surface samples can be collected
with a spade, scoop, or trowel.
Sampling at greater depths or below a

water column may require a hand

auger, coring device, or dredge.
As the sampling depth increases, the

use of a powered device may be

necessary to push the sampler into
the soil or sediment layers.
 Sampling Equipments
Tube Sampler
Churn Drills
Tube Corers
Hand Driven Split-Spoon Core Sampler
Hand-Dug Excavations
Backhoe Trenches; Bulldozer Trenches
Other Machine-Dug Excavations
Augers
Bucket or Clamshell Type Excavators
 Surface Sampling
Floodplain sampling in southwestern
Finland (Photo: Reijo Salminen, GTK).

Figure 13. Wet sieving of a stream

sediment sample in the UK (Photo:
Fiona Fordyce, BGS from Salminen
and Tarvainen et al. 1998,
 Surface Sampling

Figure 16. Humus sampling in Finland using cylindrical

sampler, and the final humus sample. (Photographs: Timo
Tarvainen, GTK).
 Surface Sampling

The alluvial horizons at the

The soil sample pit at the site floodplain sediment sampling
41E10T3, Finland. site 29E05F3, France.
 Sample Handling
Samples should be preserved to minimize
chemical or biological changes from the time of
collection to the time of analysis. Keep samples in
air tight containers. Sediment samples should also
be stored in such a way that the anaerobic
condition is preserved by minimizing headspace.

If several sub samples are collected, soil and

sediment samples should be placed in a clean
stainless steel mixing pan or bowl and thoroughly
homogenized to obtain a representative composite
sample.
 Sample Handling
Sample Label Information
Label or tag each sample container with a
unique field identification code. If the samples are
core sections, include the sample depth in the
identification.
Write the project name or project identification
number on the label.
Write the collection date and time on the label.
Attach the label or tag so that it does not contact
any portion of the sample that will be removed or
poured from the container.
Record the unique field identification code on
all other documentation associated with the specific
sample container.
Ensure all necessary information is transmitted to
the laboratory.
 Documentation
Thorough documentation of all field
sample collection and processing activities
is necessary for proper interpretation of
results. All sample identification, chain-of-
custody records, receipts for sample
forms, and field records should be
recorded using waterproof, non-erasable
ink in a bound waterproof notebook.

All Procedures must be documented.

 Sample Data

From Sampling to Production

Pyramid
3 FLOOR
RD
R_ MODEL
&
PRODUCTION

2ND FLOOR
CHEMICAL ANALYSIS
&
GEOLOGICAL INTERPRETATION

1ST FLOOR
SAMPLE PREPARATION
&
GEOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION
FOUNDATION SAMPLING
&
GEOLOGICAL OBSERVATION
 Conclusion
There are many ways to sample and
many methods to calculate the value
of a deposit. It is important to
remember to use care in sampling
and to select the method that best
suits the type of occurrence that is
being sampled.
 References
Journal of the Mississippi Academy of
Sciences, v. 47, no. 1, p. 42.
http://www.evergladesplan.org/pm/pm_d
ocs/qasr/qasr_ch_07.pdf
http://www.gtk.fi/publ/foregsatlas/article.
php?id=10
http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/tut
orial/Mugo/tutorial.htm
http://www.policyhub.gov.uk/evaluating_p
olicy/magenta_book/chapter5.asp
Thank
you
Radiometric Survey

Shantanu Tiwari
Mineral Engineering
Feb 07, 2008
 Outline
1. Introduction to Radiometric Survey
2. Radioactivity
3. Use of Radiometric Survey
4. Process
5. Case Study
6. Conclusion
7. Refrences
 Introduction
1. Radiometrics : Measure of natural radiation in the Earths surface.

2. Also Known as Gamma- Ray Spectrometry (why?).

3. Who uses it?- Geologists and Geophysicists.

4. Also useful for studying geomorphology and soils.

 Radioactivity
1. Process in which, unstable atom becomes stable through the process
of decay of its nucleus.

2.Energy is released in the form of radiation;

(a) Alpha Particle (or helium nuclei) - Least Energy- Travels few cm of air.

(b) Beta Particle (or electrons)- Higher Energy- Travels upto a meter in air

(c) Gamma Rays- Highest Energy- Travels upto 300 meters in air.
 Radioactivity (Contd.)
3. Energy of Gamma Ray is characteristic of the radioactive element it
came from.

4. Gamma Rays are stopped by water and other molecules (soil & Rock).

5. A radiometric survey measures the spatial distribution of three

radioactive elements;

(a) Potassium
(b)Thorium
(c) Uranium

6. The abundance of these elements are measured by gamma ray

detection.
 Use of Radiometric Survey
1. Radioactive elements occur naturally in some minerals.

2. Energy of Gamma Rays is the characteristic of the element.

3. Measure the energy of Gamma Ray- Abundance.

 Process
1. How we do radiometric survey?- By measuring the energy of Gamma
Rays.

2. Can be measure on the ground or by a low flying aircraft.

3. Gamma Rays are detected by Spectrometer.

4. Spectrometer- Counts the number of times each Gamma Ray of

particular energy intersects it.
Process
 Process
5. The energy spectrum measured by a spectrometer is in MeV.

6. Range- 0 to 3 MeV.

7. The number of Gamma Ray counts across the whole spectrum is

referred as the total count (TC).
 Number of Gamma Rays (per second)
Process

Energy of Gamma Rays

Process

High

Low
 Case Study
Gold Canyon Inc. (USA)- Bear Head Uranium Project

Bear Head Uranium Project- Red Lake Mining Camp(north-west

Ontario)

Covers a 23 km strike-length of Bear Head Fault Zone

0.05% U3O8
 Conclusion
1. Good Technique

2. Large Area.

3. Better for plane areas.

 References
1. http://www.goldcanyon.ca/

2. Suzanne Haydon from the Geological Survey of Victoria (Aus).

Thank you
GROUND GEOPHYSICS
 EXPLORATION
TECHNIQUES
BY
METALLURGICAL
GERTRUDE AYAKWAH
MINERAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
SAMPLING
NEW MEXICO INSTITUTE OF MINING AND TECHNOLOGY
LEROY PLACE
SOCORRO NM
February, 7th, 2008
 Outline
Introduction
Purpose

Sampling

Sample Preparation

Types of Metallurgical Sampling

a. Geochemical Analysis

b. Assay Techniques

Conclusion

References
 Introduction
Exploration geology is the process and science of locating
valuable mineral or petroleum which has a commercial value.
Mineral deposits of commercial value are called ore bodies

The goal of exploration is to prove the existence of an ore

body which can be mined at a profit

This process occurs in stages, with early stages focusing on

gathering surface data which is easier to acquire and later
stages focusing on gathering subsurface data which includes
drilling data, detailed geophysical survey data and
metallurgical analysis
 Purpose

The purpose of this presentation is to discuss

metallurgical sampling in exploration geology
 Soil and Stream Sample
Preparation
Samples are reduced and homogenized into a form which
can easily be handled by analytical personnel

Soil and stream sediment samples are usually sieved so

that particles larger than fine sand are removed.

The fine particles are mixed and a portion is removed for

chemical analysis
 Rock Sample Preparation
Rock samples are treated in a multi-step procedure

Rocks, cuttings, or core are first crushed to about pea-size in a

jaw crusher, then passed through a secondary crusher to reduce
the size further - usually 1/10 inch

This crushed sample is mixed, split in a riffle splitter and

reduced to about one-half pound or 250 grams. This 250 grams
is placed in a pulverizer where it is reduced further to -150
mesh for analysis
Metallurgical Sampling
Types
Geochemical Analysis

Assay Techniques
 Geochemical Analysis
Involves dissolution of approximately one gram of sample by
a strong acid

The solution which contains most of the base metals is

aspirated into a flame as in atomic absorption spectroscopy
(AAS) or into an inductively coupled (ICP)

AAS measures one element at a time to a normal sensitivity of

about 1 ppm
 Geochemical Analysis (Contd)
Whilst ICP 20 measure more elements at a time to ppm levels

The technique is low-cost, rapid, reasonably precise and can be

more accurate if the method is controlled by standards.

However accuracy is minor importance in geochemistry as

the exploration geologist seeks patterns rather than absolute
concentration

Hence making geochemical analysis methods are considered to

be indicators of mineralization rather than absolute
measurement of mineralization.
 Assay Techniques
Wet Chemistry

Fire Assay

Aqua Regia Acid Digestion

 Assay Techniques

Assay procedures uses accurate representation of

the mass of the sample being analyzed than in
geochemical analytical techniques.
 Wet Chemistry
It's just an informal term referring to chemistry done in
a liquid phase. When chemists talk about doing "wet
chemistry," they mean stuff in a lab with solvents, test
tubes, beakers, and flasks (Richard E. Barrans Jr.,
Ph.D)

It utilizes a physical measurement, either the color of a

solution, the weight or volume of a reagent, or the
conductivity of a solution after a specific reaction

It is a preferred technique to determine element

concentration in ore samples
 Fire Assay
It is used to analyzed precious metals in rock or soil

Assay ton portion of the sample is put into a crucible

and mixed with variety of chemical (lead oxide)

The mixture is fused at high temperature

During fusion, beads of metallic lead are released

into the molten mixture
 Fire Assay
The lead particles scavenge the precious metals and sink to
the bottom of the crucible due to the difference in density
between lead and the siliceous component of the sample
known as slag.

On completion, the molten mixture is poured into a mold and

left to solidify

After cooling, the slag is removed from the lead and the lead
bottom is transferred into a small crucible known as cupel
and placed back into a furnace
 Fire Assay
The lead is absorbed by the cupel leaving a bead
of the precious metals at the bottom of the cupel

Gold and silver is measured by weighing the bead

on a balance

Silver is dissolved in nitric acid and the bead is

weighed again to determine the undissolved gold

Silver is calculated by the difference

 Aqua Regia Acid Digestion
The same procedure is used as in fire assay but
different method of measuring gold and silver

Atomic absorption is used to measure gold and silver

Other forms of measurement include neutron

activation analysis and flameless atomic absorption
 Conclusion
Geochemical analysis is considered to be indicators
of mineralization during the earlier stages of
exploration

Assay techniques is used to determine absolute

measurement of mineralization

It also determines if the ore deposit can be

processed by conventional milling or in situ
leaching or some other way
 References
http://www.alsglobal.com/Mineral/ALSContent.aspx?
key=31#metallics

http://www.amebc.ca/primer3.htm#sampling

http://www.newton.dep.anl.gov/askasci/chem00/chem00868.ht
m
DRILLING
 DRILLING

Samuel Nunoo
New Mexico Bureau of Geology and
Mineral Resources
New Mexico Institute of Mining and
Technology, Socorro, NM

7TH FEBRUARY 2008

 Outline
Introduction

Purpose

Types
Introduction
Drilling is the process whereby rigs or hand
operated tools are used to make holes to
intercept an ore body.

Drilling is the ultimate stage in exploration.

Purpose
The purpose of drilling is;
To define ore body at depth
To access ground stability (geotechnical)
To estimate the tonnage and grade of a
discovered mineral deposit
To determine absence or presence of ore
bodies, veins or other type of mineral
deposit
Types
Drilling is generally categorized into 2 types:
Percussion Drilling
This type of drilling is whereby a hammer
beats the surface of the rock, breaks it into chips.
-Reverse Circulation Drilling (RC)

Rotary Drilling
This is the type of drilling where samples are recovered by rotation
of the drill rod without percussion of a hammer.
- Diamond Drilling
- Rotary Air Blast (RAB)
- Auger Drilling
 Percussion Drilling
Reverse Circulation Drilling (RC)
1. This type of drilling involves the use of high pressure compressors, percussion
hammers that recover samples even after the water table.

2. The end of the hammer is a tungsten carbide bit that breaks the rock with both
percussion and rotary movement .This mostly follows a RAB intercept of an ore
body.

3. The air pressure of a RC rig can be increased by the use of a booster. This allows
for deeper drilling.

4. Samples are split by special sample splitter that is believed to pulverize the
samples. This is done to avoid metal concentrations at only section of the sample.
Contamination is checked by cleaning the splitter after every rod change either by
brush or high air pressure from rigs air hose.

5. RC drilling is mostly followed by diamond drilling to confirm some of the RC drilling

ore intercept.

6. This type of drilling is faster and cheaper than diamond drilling

http://www.midnightsundrilling.com/
reverse_circulation.html
 Rotary Drilling
Rotary Air Blast Drilling (RAB)
1. This type of drilling is common in green-field exploration and in mining pits.

2. This drilling mostly confirms soil, trench or pit anomalies.

3. It involves an air pressure drilling and ends as soon as it comes into contact with
the water table because the hydrostatic pressure is more than the air pressure.

4. Samples cannot be recovered after the water table is reached.

5. Mostly a 4meter composite sampling is conducted. Every 25th sample is

replicated to check accuracy of the laboratory analysis.

6. RAB drilling in the mine is mostly done for blast holes.

 Rotary Drilling (Contd)
Diamond Drilling
1. This type of drilling uses a diamond impregnated bit that cuts the rock by rotation with
the aid of slimy chemicals in solution such as;
- DD200, expan-coarse, expan-fine, betonite and sometimes mapac A and B
for holes stability.

2. Drill sample are recovered as cores sometimes oriented for the purpose of attitude
measurement such as dip and dip directions of joints, foliation, lineation, veins.

3. Sampling involves splitting the core into 2 equal halves along the point of curvature
of foliations or along orientation lines. One half is submitted to the lab for analysis
and the other left in the core yard for future sampling if necessary.

4. Standards of known assay values are inserted in the samples to check laboratory
accuracy. Mostly high grade standards are inserted at portions of low mineralization
and low grade standards into portions of high mineralization.

5. Diamond drilling is usually the last stage of exploration or when the structural
behavior of an ore body is to be properly understood.

http://www.almadenminerals.com/geoskool/drilling.html
http://en.gtk.fi/ExplorationFinland/images/ritakallio_diamond_drilling.jpg
http://www.istockphoto.com/file_closeup/
 Rotary Drilling (Contd)
Auger Drilling
1. This is a type of superficial drilling in soils and sediments. It could machine powered
auger or hand powered (manual).

2. It is mostly conducted at the very initial stage of exploration. That is after streams
sediments, soils or laterite sampling.

http://www.geology.sdsu.edu/classes/geol552/sedsampling.htm
Thank You !!!!
GEOPHYSICAL LOGGING

Frederick Ennin
Department of Environmental
Engineering
 INTRODUCTION
Geophysical logging is the use of physical, radiogenic or
electromagnetic instruments lowered into a borehole to gather
information about the borehole, and about the physical and
chemical properties of rock, sediment, and fluids in and near the
borehole

Logging: make record of something

First developed for the petroleum industry by Marcel and Conrad

Schlumberger in 1972.

Schlumberger brothers first developed a resistivity tool to detect

differences in the porosity of sandstones of the oilfield at Merkwiller-
Perchelbrom, eastern France.

Following the first electrical logging tools designed for basic

permeability and porosity analysis other logging methods were
developed to obtain accurate porosity and permeability calculations
and estimations (sonic, density and neutron logs) and also basic
geological characterization (natural radioactivity)
 THE BOREHOLE ENVIRONMENT

Different physical properties used to

characterized the geology surrounding
a borehole-drilling
Physical properties: porosity of gravel bed,
density, sonic velocity and natural gamma
signal
Drilling can perturb the physical properties of
the rock

Factors influencing properties of rocks:

Porosity and water content
Water chemistry
Rock chemistry and minerology
Degree of rock alteration and
mineralisation
Amount of evaporites
Amount of humic acid
Temperature
 APPLICATIONS
Became and is a key technology
in the petroleum industry.
In Mineral industry:
Exploration and monitoring
grade control in working
mines.
Ground water exploration:
delineation of aquifers and
producing zones
In regolith studies:
provides unique insights into
the composition, structure and
variability of the subsurface
Airborne electromagnetics
used for ground truthing
airborne geophysical data sets.
 GEOPHYSICAL LOGGING METHODS

MECHANICAL METHODS
caliper logging
sonic logging

ELECTRICAL METHODS
resistivity logging
conductivity logging
spontaneous potential logging
induced polarisation

RADIOATIVE METHODS
natural gamma rays logging
neutron porosity logging
 MECHANICAL METHODS
Caliper logging
caliper used to measure the
diameter of a borehole and its
variability with depth.
motion in and out from the borehole
wall is recorded electrically and
transmitted to surface recording
equipment

Sonic logging
works by transmitting a sound through
the rocks of the borehole wall
Consists of two parts:
transmitter and receivers separated
by rubber connector to reduce the
amount of direct transmission of
acoustic energy along the tool from
transmitter to receiver Crosshole Sonic Logging method with various kinds of defects. (Blackhawk
GeoServices, Inc.)
 ELECTRICAL METHODS
Used in hard rock drilling

Resistivity
probes measure voltage drop by passing current through rocks

Conductivity
measurements induction probes via electromagnetic induction
either in filled or dry holes

Spontaneous potential (SP) - oldest E-method

Measures small potential differences between down
hole movable electrode and the surface earth connection
Uses wide range of electrochemical and electrokinetic processes

Induced polarisation (IP)

Commonly used in surface prospecting for minerals and downhole
applications.
Uses transmitter loop to charge the ground with high current
Transmitter loop turned off and voltage change with time is recorded.
 RADIOATIVE METHODS
Natural Gamma logging
simplest, high penetration distance through
rocks (1-2 m)
Depends on initial energy level and rock
density
Records levels of naturally occurring gamma
rays from rocks around borehole

Signals from isotopes: K-40, Th-232, U-238

and daughter products-
provides geologic information Secondary uranium minerals associated with Gulcheru
quartzite from Gandi area, Andhra

Sophisticated tools records emission from Bi-

214 and
Tl-208 instead of U-238 and Th-232
provides detailed chemistry of rocks in
borehole

Successfully used to search for roll front

uranium deposit in regolith

Gamma-ray Borehoole Logging Probe (Lead Shielded)/System for

measurement of high-grade ore in borehole
 RADIOATIVE METHODS

Neutron Porosity Logging

Measures properties of the rock close to

the borehole
Very useful tool for measuring porosity

free neutrons almost unknown in the

Earth

Neutron emission source

Active source emits into rocks around a
borehole
Flux of neutrons recorded at the detector
is used as indicator of conditions around
surrounding rocks.
Neutron logging provides data under
a variety of conditions in cased and
uncased boreholes. .
 RADIOATIVE METHODS

Effects:
Hydrogen Exception:
neutrons rapidly loose energy due
to collision with hydrogen nuclei
(thermal neutron-like diffusing
gas)

Changes in Diameter of boreholes

affects results
Calibrated with limestone samples
of differing water-filled porosities
(equivalent limestone porosities)
Used in conjunction with other
logging
methods in mineral geophysical
logging in hard rock (lower
porosities)
 PROBLEMS AND LIMITATION

Problems
Biggest is the need for a well (ie. a borehole) to operate
High cost of drilling meaning boreholes are always
not available hence GWL will not be possible for a particular
study.
Colapse of holes in regolith systems
while wireline logs are running solved with foam drilling
or plastic casing insertion.

Limitations
Recognition that each method has weaknesses and strengths.
PVC casing- prevents electrical logging & neutron logging
(hydrogen)
 CONCLUSIONS

Geophysical well logging provides many different

opportunities to investigate the material making
up the wall of a borehole, be it regolith or
crystalline rock.

A widen range of different sensors provide

information which complementary in nature. Best
results are obtained by running a suite of logs
and analyzing their similarities and differences.
 REFERENCES
Hallenburg, J.K., 1984. Geophysical logging for mineral and
engineering applications. PennWell Books, Tulsa, Oklahoma, 254 pp.
Keys, W.S., 1988. Borehole geophysics applied groundwater
investigations. U.S Geol. Surv. Open File Report 87-539, Denver.
McNeill, J.D., Hunter, J.A and Bosnar, M., 1996. Application of a
borehole induction magnetic susceptibility logger to shallow
lithological mapping. Journal of Environmental and Engineering
Geophysics 2: 77-90
Schlumberger, 2000. Beginnings. A brief history of Schlumberger
wireline and testing, www site:
http://www.1.slb.com/recr/library/wireline/brochure/beginnings.html
Sheriff, R.E., 1991. Encyclopedic Dictionary of Exploration
Geophysics, Society of Exploration Geophysicists, Tulsa, Oklahoma,
376 pp.
Keys, Scott, MacCary, L. M., 1971 Application of Borehole Geophysics
to Water-Resources Investigations, Techniques of Water-Resources
Investigations Book 2, Chapter E1,
http://pubs.er.usgs.gov/usgspubs/twri/twri02E1
Keys, W. S., 1990, Techniques of Water-Resources Investigations,
Book 2, Chapter E-2, U. S. Geological Survey,
http://pubs.er.usgs.gov/usgspubs/twri/twri02E2
 REFERENCES

Stevens, H. H. Jr., Ficke, J. F., and Smoot, G. F., 1976, Techniques of Water-
Resources Investigations Book 1, Chapter D1, Water TemperatureInfluential
Factors, Field Measurement, and Data Presentation, U.S. Geological Survey,
http://pubs.er.usgs.gov/usgspubs/twri/twri01D1

http://images.google.com/imgres?
imgurl=http://id.water.usgs.gov/projects/INL/images/therm_1.gif&imgrefurl=http://
id.water.usgs.gov/projects/INL/geophys.html&h=472&w=474&sz=11&hl=en&start=
13&um=1&tbnid=U3z2Z4OhRFxj5M:&tbnh=128&tbnw=129&prev=/images%3Fq
%3DPICTURES%2BOF%2BGEOPHYSICAL%2BLOGGING%26um%3D1%26hl%3Den
%26rls%3Dcom.microsoft:*:IE-SearchBox%26rlz%3D1I7GGIC

http://images.google.com/imgres?
imgurl=http://www.nga.com/graphics/Geo_ser_Borehole_logging(sketch).gif&imgref
url=http://www.nga.com/Geo_ser_Borehole_logging_tech.htm&h=292&w=350&sz=
11&hl=en&start=1&um=1&tbnid=yn-
xod1ZgFgn3M:&tbnh=100&tbnw=120&prev=/images%3Fq%3DPICTURES%2BOF
%2BGEOPHYSICAL%2BLOGGING%26um%3D1%26hl%3Den%26rls
%3Dcom.microsoft:*:IE-SearchBox%26rlz%3D1I7GGIC
METALURGICAL SAMPLING
 Methods
Magnetic surveys
Electromagnetic (EM, EMI),
electromagnetic sounding
Direct current (DC)
GPR (Ground penetrating
radar potential)
Seismic
Time-domain
electromagnetic (TEM)
Controlled source audio-
magnetotellurics (CSAMT)
Radiometric surveys
Induced polarization (IP)
Spontaneous potential (SP)
Borehole geophysics
Satellite imagery
Imagery spectrometry
ASTER (Advanced space-
borne thermal emissions
reflection radiometer)
AVIRIS
PIMA
SFSI
LIBS
SWIR
Multispectral
 OTHER TECHNIQUES
Fluid inclusion analyses
Stable and radiometric isotopes

Computer modeling
 STEPS
Define uranium deposit model
Select area

Collect and interpret regional data

Define local target area

Field reconnaissance

Reconnaissance drilling

Bracket drilling

Ore discovery