Material Technology IInd Sem

Cast iron is pig iron remelted and there by
refined in a cupola is other form of remelting

furnace, and poured into suitable moulds of
required shapes. A cupola dose not produces
steel.
Instead remelting scraps along with pig iron
in a furnace called CUPOLA pours iron casting.
As the metal is melted in contact with fuel,
some elements are picked up while others are
lost.
This affects the final analysis of the metal
and necessitates close regulation of the
cupola.
Manufacture of Cast Iron
Cast iron is manufactured from Cupola furnace. A Cupola

may be described as a smaller version of the Blast
furnace. It is a vertical shaft type furnace consisting
of a cylindrical steel shell lined with refractory
material and equipped with a wind box and tuyeres for
admission of air. A charging door is provided at the top
for the introduction of melting stock and fuel. Near the
bottom are holes and spouts for removal of molten metal
and slag.
The charge of Cupola is made of solid pig iron,coke,lime
stone, and iron & steel scrap. The iron and steel scrap
are very important since they help in reducing the cost
of iron and adjusting the carbon content of the whole
mass of iron.Coke provides the heat necessary to melt the
charge. Flux is a substance which lowers the melting
point and improves the fluidity of the slag. Lime stone
acts as a flux and separates the slag from the pig iron
and ash from the coke to form a liquid slag.
1. Preheat zone
2. Reduction zone
3. Oxidation zone
4. Metal/slag zone
Preheat zone:
It lies over the melting zone, serves as heat exchanger
wherein waste heat is recovered by direct heat exchange
between upward flowing gases and downward flowing
charges and fuel.
Reduction zone:
It is above the combustion zone. In this zone the
principal reaction is the combination of carbon dioxide
with the fuel to form carbon monoxide. Most of the
water vapour present in the blast air also reacts in
this zone to form CO & H2.
Oxidation Or Combustion zone:
In this zone the principal reaction is the combustion of
oxygen with the fuel to form CO2.
Operation of Cupola:
The bottom doors are closed and a sand bed is formed on

it. A tap hole is formed at this level in line with
tapping spout. Coke, iron, flux are placed in alternate
layers and the coke bed is lighted up by starting the air
blow. ( The iron to coke ratio is 10:1 ).
This air rising upwards through the stack furnishes

oxygen for combustion of coke. After blowing a few
minutes the coke becomes hot enough to cause melting of
the metal charge. As the metal melts in the zone above
the tuyeres, it trickles down through the coke and
accumulates in the well, the cupola is tapped.
Liquid slag will continue to flow until the iron level

reaches the slag hole, at which time the cupola must be
tapped.
Cast iron is an alloy of iron, carbon and
silicon. Most cast irons contain carbon 2-
4%, silicon 0.5 3%, manganese 0.2 1%,
phosphorus 0.05 0.8%, sulphur 0.04
0.15%.
Carbon in cast iron is found in two forms:

in the free state as graphite and in the
combined form as cementite. Cementite is
very hard and brittle and has little
strength.
The various types of cast iron are
1.Wrought iron
2.Nodular cast iron
3.Alloy cast iron
4.Grey cast iron
5.White cast iron
6.Malleable cast iron
7.Meehanite cast iron
WROUGHT IRON: It is a ferrous material aggregated from
solidifying mass of pasty particles of highly refined
metallic iron with which a minutely and uniformly
distributed quantity of slag is incorporated without
subsequent fusion.
Composition: Carbon 0.02 to 0.03%, Phosphorus 0.05 to

0.25%, Silicon 0.02 to 0.10%, Slag 0.05 to1.5%, Sulphur
0.008 to 0.02%, Manganese 0.02% balance is iron.
Properties:
Wrought iron is never cast. All shaping is accomplished

by pressing, hammering, forging, etc.
It is noted for its high ductility and the ease with

which it can be forged and welded.
Properties:
Wrought iron is never cast. All shaping is accomplished
by pressing, hammering, forging, etc.
It is noted for its high ductility and the ease with

which it can be forged and welded.
Uses:
1. Building construction underground
services lines
2. Public works Bridge, railings,
blast plates.
3. Industrial Condenser tubes, unfired
heat exchangers.
4. Railroad and marine Diesel exhaust
and brake piping
5. Others Coal handling
equipments.
2.0 GREY CAST IRON
Melting together low quantity foundry pig, scrapped
casting and coke in a cupola, which is similar to a
small blast furnace produces it. The salvaged cast
scrap is used to control the alloying elements in the
finished cast iron. When this cast iron is fractured it
gives a grey appearance therefore it is called grey
cast iron. It has most of the carbon in graphite form.
Properties:
It has high compressive strength but low tensile
strength.
It has self damping property does not vibrate or ring.
It has self lubricate property and also good anti-
friction property.
It has high fluidity and ability to make sound castings.
It prevents chatters when used for machine frames.
It has good wear resistance.
Uses:
Machine tool structures (bed, frame)
Frames for electric motors.
Piston rings, engine cylinders blocks, cylinder blocks,
brake drums, clutch plates
Rolling mill and general machinery parts.
House holds appliances.
Underground pipes for water.
Pumps, car wheels, transmission cases.
Surface plates, vice body, jack body.
3.0 MALLEABLE CAST IRON
Malleable iron is cast alloy consisting principally of
iron and carbon, which is rendered tough and ductile by
a control heat conversion process. It solidifies in the
as cast condition in a graphite free structure, that is
the total carbon contain is present in its dissolved
and combined form as cementite. The properties of
material are obtained by heat treatment. Since it can
be easily caused to spread and flatten under pressure
or hammering, it is known as malleable.
Properties:
It posses high yield strength, high Youngmodulus ,high
impact strength,good ductility and mallaebility.
It possesses good wear resistance and vibration damping
capacity.
It possesses good corrosion resistance,good machinability
and castability.
Uses:
In automotive Industries.
In railroads.
For gear case.
Universal joint yoke.
Agriculture implements.
In construction and electrical equipments.
NODULAR CAST IRON
In this type the graphite flakes appear as rounded
particles or nodules or spheroids. It is also called as
spheriodal graphite cast iron (SG Iron) or ductile cast
iron. These spheriodising elements when added to melt
eliminate sulphur and oxygen (from the melt), which
changes solidification characteristics and possible
account for the nodulisation.
Properties:
It posses very good machinability Soft annealed grades of
this type can be turned at very high speeds and feeds.
It has damping capacity intermediate between cast iron
and steel.
It possesses excellent castability.
It possesses high strength, ductility, modulus of
elasticity and good fatigue strength.
Uses:
Used in IC engines, for making crankshafts, rocker arms,
clutches, gears.
Power transmission equipments.
Valve and fitting, pipes, pumps and compressors.
Earth moving machinery for wheels, gears, rope drums.
For castings requiring corrosion and wear resistance.
.
5.0 WHITE CAST IRON:
The broken surface of these types of iron shows a
bright white fracture. It has no graphite and there
fore white in colors. Hence the name white iron. The
whole carbon content is in the form of cementite or
lamellar pearlite.
Properties:
It has excellent abrasive resistance and it is extremely
hard.
Under normal circumstances it is brittle and not
machinable.
It retains hardness up to 550C.
It has low ductility and low impart strenght.
Uses:
For manufacturing those components which require a hard
and abrasion resistance materials.
For the production of malleable iron castings.
For parts of crushers, grinders, shot blasting nozzles,
blades, and parts of pumps. Car wheels, metal working
rolls, grinding rolls, pulverizes, clay mixing and
brick making equipments, ploughs, rail wheels, brake
shoes, dies, Muller wheels etc.
MEEHANITE CAST IRON
It is essentially a grey iron containing free
graphite, which is added graphically in a controlled
manner in a ladle. It is a proprietary name for a
patented series of high duty cast irons included with
calcium silicate as it acts as graphitiser.
Properties:
1. Meehanite castings are replacing other irons and more
expensive products like steel castings, malleable iron
and non-ferrous alloys.
2. It has its vibration damping capacity between cast
iron and steel, combined with good strength.
3. Meehanite castings can be machined with HSS or Carbide
tools.
ALLOY CAST IRONS:
To over come some inherent difficulties in ordinary
cast iron and to give qualities more suitable for
special purpose, while retaining the important castings
advantages of its metals, a large number of alloy cast
iron have been developed. When alloying elements are
added to cast iron, certain characteristics are
obtained more uniform structure, better hardness, wear
resistance, strength and machinability. Also the other
properties such as thermal expansion, thermal
conductivity, magnetic and electric properties can be
adjusted. Alloy cast irons those to which alloying
additions are intentionally made to impart particular
property. E.g. for alloy cast iron are
Nickel Cast iron
Nickel hard white cast iron.
Nickel cast iron: - Nickel acts as graphitizer and
improves machinability. Nickel with silicon adjusted,
acts as densner giving a fine grain size. Properties
will be more uniform. Progressive increase in nickel
content changes the microstructure from pearlite to
martensite and to austenite. By addition of nickel 1.5
to 2% and molybdenum 0.3-0.6% the matrix of cast iron
can have a acicular or needle like structure instead of
pearlite. This produces a heavy-duty cast iron
characterized by heavy sections and good wear
resistance. Typical applications are die blocks for
pressing or forging and rolling mill rolls.
10 STEEL
10.0 Introduction
Steel is a fundamentally an alloy of iron and carbon,

with carbon content up to 1.5%.The carbon is
distributed through out the mass of the metal as a
compound with iron. If the carbon % increases
above 1.5%, a stage soon arrives when no more
carbon can be contain in the combined state and any
excess must be present as free-carbon. It is at
this stage that the metal merges into the group
termed cast iron.
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10.1 Classification of steels
CARBON CONTENT
LOW CARBON STEEL (0.008% TO 0.3% CARBON)
MEDIUM CARBON STEEL (0.31% TO 0.6% CARBON)
HIGH CARBON STEEL (0.61% TO 2% CARBON)
PURPOSE AND USE
TOOL STEELS
STRUCTURAL STEELS
BOILER STEELS
ELECTRIC STEELS
METHOD OF MANUFACTURE
OPEN HEARTH STEEL
BESSEMER STEEL
LD STEEL
AMOUNT OF DEOXIDATION
RIMMED STEEL
KILLED STEEL
SEMI-KILLED STEEL
AMOUNT OF ALLOY CONTENT
LOW ALLOY STEEL (ALLOYING ELEMENTS <5%)
HIGH ALLOY STEEL (ALLOYING ELEMENTS >5%)
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10.2 Plain carbon steels-Properties and Uses
1.Low Carbon Steel

Properties: - They are soft, ductile, malleable, tough, machinable,
weldable but non hardenable, they are good for cold working and
fabrication purpose.
Dead mild steel used in making steel wires, sheets, rivets,

(C 0.05 to 0.15%) Screws, pipes, nails, and chain.
Mild steel Fan blades, forging, etc.
(C 0.15 to 0.20%) used for making camshafts, sheets and strips,
for
Mild steel used for making crankshafts, Connecting rods,
(C 0.20 to 0.30%) railway axles, fishplates, small forging
etc.
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2.Medium carbon steel
Properties: - These steels have intermediate properties to those of
low carbon steels and high carbon steels. They are medium hard,
not so ductile and malleable, medium tough, slightly difficult to
machine, weld and hardened. They are difficult to cold work and
hence hot work. They are also called as machinery steels .
Steels with used for making gear shafts, shift and brake levers,
(C 0.30 to 0.70% ) wires and rods, small and medium
forging.
Steel with used for making parts, which are to be subjected to
(C 0.45 to 0.55%) Shock and heavy reversal of stresses such as railway
coach axles, crank pins on heavy machines, spline
shafts, axles etc.
Steel with used for drop forging dies, die block, clutch disks,
(C 0.45 to 0.70%) self taking screws, valve springs, thrust washers etc.
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3.High carbon steel
Properties: - They are hard, wear resistant, brittle, difficult to

machine and weld but can be hardened. Hardenability is high.
They cannot be cold worked and hence hot worked; they are also
called as Tool Steels.
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used in cold chisels, wrenches shear blades, hack

Steel with C 0.70 to 0.80%
saws, pneumatic drill bit.
used in machine chisels, leaf springs, punch and dies
etc.
used in keys, shear blades, pins, speed disk, and
dies etc.
used railways springs, mandrels, machine tools,
Steel with C 1. 02 to 1.10%
taps etc.
used in twist drills, knifes, thread metal dies, taps
etc.
Used in files, reamers, metal cutting tools etc.
Steel with 1.20 to 1.30%
Steel with 1.30 to 1.50% used in wire drawing dies, metal cutting saws etc.
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10.3 ALLOY STEEL

Steel is considered to be alloy steel when the maximum range given
for the alloying elements exceeds one are more of the following
limits.
Mn 1.65% Si 0.60% Cu 0.60%
Given below is the composition of typical alloy steel.
C 0.2 - 0.4% Mn 0.5 -1.0%

Si 0.3 - 0.6% Ni 0.4 - 0.7%
Cr 0.4 - 0.6% Mo0.15 - 0.3%
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10.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Alloy Steel
Advantages
1. Greater hardenability.
2. Less distortion and cracking.
3. Greater ductility at high strength.
4. Greater stress relief for a given hardness.
Higher elastic ratio and endurance strength.
More strength, hardness and toughness at low and high temperatures.
Better resistance to wear and abrasion due to the presence of alloy
carbides.
More uniform properties throughout the cross-section.
High resistance to tempering.
More resistance to corrosion and oxidation resistance.
10 STEEL
Disadvantages
Cost.
Special handling.
Temper brittleness in certain grades.
Some of the prominent Alloy Steels

1. Silicon steel 7. Chrome Vanadium Steel
2. Silicon Mn steel 8. Molybdenum Steel
3. Nickel Steel 9. Chrome Molybdenum Steel
4. Chrome Nickel Steel 10. Chrome Steel
5. Tungsten Steel 11. Manganese Steel
6. Vanadium 12 Cobalt Steel.
11ELEMENTS IN STEEL
Steel may contain some of the following elements and
effects of each are given below.
11.0 EFFECTS OF ALLOYING ELEMENTS
1. NICKEL: -
- Toughens steel by refining grains
- Strengthens ferrite
- Improves tensile strength and hardness
- It is an austenite stabilizer
- It increases and oxidation resistance
- It increases impact resistance
- It reduces coefficient of thermal expansion
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2. CHROMIUM: -
- Increases resistance to corrosion and oxidation
- Stabilizes carbides and forms hard chromium
carbides
- Resists abrasion and wear
- It increases hardenability of steel
- It improves service life
3. MANGANESE: -
- Acts as a de-oxidizer and de-sulphuriser
- Increases hardenability
- It increases strength, toughness, hardness and
machinability.
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4. MOLYBDENUM: -
- Raises grain coarsening temperature of
austenite
- Deepens hardening
- Reduces temper brittleness in nickel chromium
steel
5. VANADIUM: -
- Raises softening temperature of hardened steel
- Increases hardenability
- Promotes fine grain
- Increases hardness and vanadium carbides
promote secondary hardening.
- Improves wear resistance.
- Improves fatigue and creep resistance.
- t is a strong de-oxidiser.
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6. TUNGSTEN: -
- Reduces grain growth
- Rises the limiting creep stress at temperatures
- Promotes hardness and strength at elevated
temperature
7. COBALT: -
- Contributes to red hardness by hardening
- Tends to cause de-carbonization
- It increases resistance to tempering
8. SILICON: -
- Alloying element for electrical and magnetic
sheet
- Strengthens low alloy steel
- It acts as graphitizer.
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9. ALUMINIUM: -
- It is a strong de-oxidizer and grain refiner
10. SULPHUR: -
- It increases brittleness and produces hot
shortness.
11. PHOSPHORUS: -
- Increases strength and hardness
- It is solid solution strengthener
- Excess addition makes steel brittle and cold
shortness.
11ELEMENTS IN STEEL
11.1 COMPOSITION, PROPERTIES & USES OF ALLOY
STEEL
1. NICKEL STEEL
Composition: Amount of nickel varies from 2% - 45%
Properties:
Very high tensile strength
Stainless and non-magnetic
Reduces coefficient of thermal expansion to 0.0000002
It is known as invar and super invar. It posses extension
equal to that of glass
Uses:
Boiler plates, rivets, cams and bolts, etc,
High-pressure boilerplates, war ships, connecting rods, etc.
Engine valves, turbine blades, electric resistance wires, etc.
For measuring instruments, survey tapes, clock pendulum,
etc.
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2. NICKEL CHROME STEEL
Composition:
(a) Mild nickel chrome steel C-0.2-0.3% Ni
3.75%
Having High strength
Used for Axle crank shafts
(b)Medium nickel chromium steel C0.2-0.35% Ni-3-
3.75%
Stronger than mild nickel chromium
Used for Cranks, connecting rods, etc. for parts
subjected to high stress and shocks.
(c) High Tensile nickel chromium steel Cr-0.3%
Very hard, tough, high tensile strength
Used for Parts for aircraft and shafts.
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3. MOLYBDENUM STEELS
(a) Chromium molybdenum steel (Mo-0.15-0.6%)
Relatively cheep, good deep hardening characteristics,
ductility, and weld ability.
(b)Nickel Molybdenum steel (Cr-1% Mo-0.15-0.25%)
High strength ductility, deep hardening, improved
machinability.
Uses:
Transmission gears, roller bearings, chain pins, etc.
4. CHROMIUM STEEL
Composition: Cr-8-15%
Properties:
Permanent magnetism
Uses:
Electrical equipments, springs, ball and roller bearings.
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5. MANGANESE STEEL
Composition: Mn 1-1.5% up to 2%,
Properties:
Strong and tough reduce formation of sulphide and
deoxidization of molten metal. hard and brittle, very
hard, tough, non-magnetic and high tensile strength.
Uses:-
Manganese steel castings are used for special purpose such as
the parts of stone crushing grinding and dredging plant,
forging of component can also be done
6. SILICON STEEL
Composition: 3.5% silicon
Properties:
- Improved electrical properties, low magnetic hysterises.
Uses:
-Chemical industries IC engines etc.
11ELEMENTS IN STEEL
7.SILICON MANGANESE STEEL
Composition: Si-2%, Mn-0.7%
Properties:
-High resilience, strength and toughness.
Uses: -
-Used for leaf spring, coil spring, chemical industry
and I C engine parts.
11ELEMENTS IN STEEL
11.2 SPECIAL ALLOY STEEL
1. MAGNET STEEL
Composition 15-40% cobalt, 0.4-1% carbon1.5-9%
chromium, 10%tungsten
Properties:
Possess improved magnetic properties
Uses:
Permanent magnets for loud speakers and other
electrical machines and instruments.
2. HEAT RESISTING STEEL:
Composition 23-30% chromium, less then 0.35% carbon
Properties
Suitable for working at very high temperatures.
Resistance to acid corrosion.
Uses:
Furnace parts, annealing boxes and flame nozzles
11ELEMENTS IN STEEL
3. SHOCK LOADING STEEL:
Composition:-0. 5% carbon, 2.25% tungsten, 1.5%
chromium, 0.25% vanadium
Properties
It resists high shock loads and impact loads
Uses:
Axles, leaf and coil springs, wheel drums, etc,
4. STAINLESS STEEL:
a) Martensitic stainless steel
Composition 16-20% Cr, 0.1-0.3% C, 1-3% Ni
High strength, excellent toughness, resistance to
oxidation, high corrosion and abrasion resistance.
Uses: -
Dairy and chemical Industries
All types of surgical dental instruments
Utensils .
11ELEMENTS IN STEEL
b) Ferritic stainless steel
Composition:-14-27%Cr
Properties:-
Magnetic, good resistance to corrosion, very soft, and
low impact values.
Uses: -
Nuclear power plant parts.
c) Austenitic stainless steel:
Composition: - 15-20% Cr, 7-10% Ni (18/8) 18%
Cr & 8% is widely used.
Properties:
High red hardness, good corrosion resistance, better
resistant to high temperature, high ductility
Uses:
Used in consumer products, architectural constructions,
chemical equipments, etc,
11ELEMENTS IN STEEL
5. HIGH SPEED STEEL:
(a)Tungsten HSS (18-4-1)
Composition: 18% W, 4% Cr. 1% V, 0.75%C
Properties:-
High red hardness, excellent toughness and cutting
ability.
Uses:-
Used for cutting tools used on lathe, shaper, planer
and drills, taps, dies etc,
(b)Molybdenum HSS (6-6-4-2 HSS)
Composition: 6% Mo, 4%Cr, 6%W, 2%V
Properties: -
It possesses same properties as that of tungsten HSS
but it is cheaper.
Uses: -
Used for cutting tools
11ELEMENTS IN STEEL
(c) Cobalt HSS
Composition: 10% Co, 18%W, 4%Cr, 2%V
Properties:-
High hardness, increased cutting ability at elevated
temperature, more resistant to crack in quenching, subjected
to decarborization if held for too long at the heating
temperature.
Uses:
Suitable for cutting tools, which are used, in high production, in
increased speed and more depth of cuts.
(d) Vanadium HSS
Composition: more than 1% V, 0.7% C
Properties:-
It has excellent abrasive resistance and good cutting efficiency.
Uses:-
Used for cutting tools.
11ELEMENTS IN STEEL
11.3 TOOL STEELS A steel containing alloying elements that
enable it to be heat treated to obtain desirable
characteristics such as strength, hardness and wear
resistance are referred as tool steel.
The term tool steel refers to a group of high quality carefully
manufactured steels that are characterized by high hardness
and resistance to abrasion. Certain groups of steels also
have a high resistance to softening at high temperatures.
A vacuum process produces tool steels for critical applications.
Rigorous inspection procedures are employed throughout the
manufacture of tool steel. Entire bars may be subjected to
magnetic particle and ultrasonic inspection for surface and
internal defects.
The high price of alloying elements and precise production
requirements and quality control are the reason for the high
cost of tool steels. When it is considered that the tool
steels are made into a complicated tool or die which requires
hundreds of man-hours in its manufacture and will produce
thousands or even millions it is well worth the extra cost.
11ELEMENTS IN STEEL
The importance is given to different steels used
for tool because of feasible properties of
such steels: -
Slight change of form during hardening.
Little risk of cracking during hardening
Good toughness
Very good machinability
Good wear resistance.
A definite cooling rate during hardening
A definite hardening temp
Resistance to decarburization.
Resistance to softening on heating, i.e., red hardness
The term tool steel is used in present day industry,
refers to a group of high quality, carefully
manufactured steels that are characterized by high
hardness and resistance to abrasion.
11ELEMENTS IN STEEL
11.3.1 Classification of tool steels
Classification as per American Iron and
Steel Institute (AISI) divides tool steels into the
following main groups for majority of application.
Cold work tool steels
Hot work tool steels and
High-speed tool steel.
Cold work tool steel
Typical uses are engraving tools, files, and
razors, shaping tools, woodworking tools heading
tools, etc.
Hot Work Tool steel
The term hot work tool steels are intended for
all tooling applications except cutting tools where
temperature attained by the tool, die and mould is
above 200C. Typical uses are for hot extrusion; hot
stamping dies, die-casting dies, forging dies, etc.
11ELEMENTS IN STEEL
High-speed tool steel
The term High Speed Tool Steel is defined as a
special variety of tool steel, which by virtue of its
composition retains its cutting hardness at low red
heat. Typical uses are drills, slitting saws and other
high speed and heavy cut tools, etc.
11ELEMENTS IN STEEL
11.4 CLASSIFICATION AND COMPOSITION OF
PRINCIPAL TYPES OF TOOL STEELS
1. Cold Work Tool Steels
It is seen that each group of tool steel
processes a distinguishing property or properties, which
identify and establish its superiority over other groups
and no group has all the requisites viz, best in wear
resistance, best in toughness. The increase in wear
resistance and decrease in toughness is due to the
increase of carbon and alloying elements.
Similarly it is seen that the shock resistance
tool steel due to its medium carbon and alloying content
is the best in toughness but less wear resistant. Wear
resistance-toughness combination is the primary
criterion for satisfactory tool operation.
11ELEMENTS IN STEEL
11ELEMENTS IN STEEL
11.5 Present trends in the cold work tool steels
High carbon water hardening tool steels are
used for tools, which are simple in shape for short runs and
where there are no sharp changes in section etc. The present
trend is towards greater use of High Carbon High Chromium for
complicated and interacted tooling and for long runs. This trend
is principally to obtain longer tool life to avoid distortion or
cracking during heat treatments and also the dimensional
changes resulting from hardening are exceptionally small. AISI
has therefore assigned symbol Dindicating dimensional stability.
During tools fabrication if the changes in the size control and
position of the tooling are to be kept to the obsolete minimum
particularly when the precision operations like jig boring, die
sinking etc. are involved, then high carbon high chromium
becomes the obvious choice.
11ELEMENTS IN STEEL
The special purpose tool steels coming under cold work
tool steels are discussed like, Low alloy special
purpose tool steel (L) are similar to group W.
Greater wear resistance and hardenability is there
due to the addition of Chromium and other elements.
L6 has additional toughness and hardenability due to
the presence of Nickel.
Carbon Tungsten tool steels (F) is similar to group W
and have high wear resistance due to high carbon
and tungsten content.
Used for Wire drawing dies, forming tools, burnishing
tools etc. where high wear, low temperature and low
shock applications.
Low Carbon mould steels (P) are alloy carburising steels
produced to tool steel quality
Used for Moulds for injection or compression molding
of plastics.
11ELEMENTS IN STEEL
WATER HARDENING TOOL STEELS
The water hardening or carbon steels are
one of the oldest types of tool steels. They depend
primarily upon carbon content of their treatable
properties with addition of chromium or vanadium.
Chromium is added to increase harden ability and
wear resistance. Vanadium is added to refine grain
for added toughness. Carbon content varies from
0.6 to 1.4%. . They will harden with hard case and
tough core. They posses low resistance to heat
softening. They are easy to machine compared to
other steels and require relative simple heat-
treating methods. They are suitable for light or
medium cold impact operations such as coining, cold
heading, punching, knurling, embossing and for wood
and metal hand cutting tools.
11ELEMENTS IN STEEL
The steel should not be used when the tool

has drastic changes, sharp corners or holes near the
edge of the tool. Tools of this nature have a
tendency to crack during heat treatment because of
quenching stresses caused by uneven cooling stress
concentration points. They should not be used where
distortion during heat treatment will present a
problem; the steels have a tendency to wrap during
quenching.
THEY SHOULD NOT BE USED WHEN WORKING
TEMPERETURE WILL BE EN COUNTERED, AS THE
TOOL WILL SOFTEN.
When the tool is relatively complicated and there is a
possibility to crack during Heat Treatment water-
hardening steel should not be used. Oil or air
hardening steel should be used.
11ELEMENTS IN STEEL
SHOCK RESISTING STEELS

These steels are used for shock operations at normal
temperatures and where maximum abrasion
resistance is not required. They have less carbon
and have higher toughness. The hardness will be
below 60HRC.They are oil and water hardening
steels.
The chief alloying elements are silicon, chromium, and
tungsten and molybdenum. . These alloys increase
Hardenability and provide heat and wear resistance.
The tungsten types have higher heat resistance.
Pneumatic chisels are heavy duty; shear blades and
similar tools are manufactured from the steel
11ELEMENTS IN STEEL
OIL HARDENING TOOL STEELS:
They are safer to harden and have less dimensional

change during heat treatment. They have good
machinability, good resistance to decarborisation and
have a high carbon content to provide good wear
resistance. The depth of hardening is greater than
that of water hardening steels and as a result they
are usually less tough. They do not have high red
hardness and there fore must be used for tools that
will operate near room temperature. Blanking,
hardening, trimming, and cooling tools thread rolling
dies, knurling tools, gauges etc., are manufactured.
11ELEMENTS IN STEEL
AIR HARDENING TOOL STEEL:
This possesses better properties than oil hardening
steels. Manganese, chromium, molybdenum and
vanadium are the chief alloying elements. These
alloying elements promote air-hardening
characteristics, which result in excellent dimensional
stability. The high carbon content provides good
wear resistance. The high manganese grades may be
hardened at lower temperatures thus reducing
scaling and further reducing dimensional change .The
machinability is lower than water and oil hardened
grade steel. This steel has poor machinability. The
air hardening grades are used to manufacture
intricate dies, punches, and thread rolling dies, long
slender broaches and other applications where
resistance to distortion and abrasion are important.
11ELEMENTS IN STEEL
HIGH CORBON HIGH CHROMIUM COLD WORK
STEELS
They combine the high wear resistance with deep
hardening properties. The have low dimensional
change during hardening and have a medium
resistance to heat softening. They are susceptible
to edge brittleness which makes them unsuitable for
edge cutting tools.
Intricate dies and punches, master gauges and other
applications where dimensional stability and long
wearing properties are important are manufactured
from this steel.
11ELEMENTS IN STEEL
HOT WORK TOOL STEELS:
Hot work tool steels (AISI code H) form a special
group of steels intended mainly for industrial
applications used in high temperature metal forming
operations. H steels are intended to cover all
applications except cutting tools, where the
operating temperature is above 200 C.
The desirable properties for this type of
tool steels are red hardness; hot wear resistance
and toughness at elevated temperature besides
having a good thermal conductivity. The three main
hard working activities are forging, hot extrusion
and die- casting.
These steels have been alloyed to withstand high
working temperatures for such application as die
casting dies etc, hot forging dies, plastic molds, hot
extrusion dies etc., the main alloying elements are
chromium, molybdenum and tungsten. The hot work
11ELEMENTS IN STEEL
CHROMIUM HOT WORK TOOL STEELS:
They contain 5to7% chromium and smaller amounts of
vanadium, tungsten, and molybdenum. In addition to
good red hardening properties, they are extremely
deep hardening and good dimensional stability during
hardening.
TUNGSTEN HOT WORK STEELS:
They contain 9to18%tungsten and 2to12%chromium.
These alloys are good resistance to high
temperature softening. They are however more
brittle at working hardness.
MOLYBDENUM HOT WORK STEELS:
These contain 5to 9.5% molybdenum, 4% chromium,
1.5to6.5% tungsten and smaller amounts of
vanadium.
11ELEMENTS IN STEEL
SPECIAL PURPOSE TOOL STEELS:
LOW ALLOY SPECIAL PURPOSE TOOL STEELS:
These steels are similar to the water hardening steels. Chromium
and other elements are added for grater wear resistance and
hardenability. They are used where high wear resistance and
toughness are required.
CARBON TUNGSTEN TOOL STEELS:
These water hardening Steels have high wear resistance because
of the high carbon and tungsten content. They are used
where high wear resistance and low shock applications.
LOW CORBON MOULD STEELS:
They are carbonizing steels produced to tool steel quality. They
have a low hardness in the annealed state and are generally
carbureted for greater wear resistance after being machined
their major application is moulds for injection or compression
molding of plastics.
11ELEMENTS IN STEEL
HIGH SPEED STEEL
High-speed steel (HSS) is highly alloyed tool steel.
These steels owe their name to the fact that they
were originally developed for high-speed metal
cutting. HSS have a high degree of red hardness
and high abrasion resistance along with a comparable
degree of shock resistance. Their primary use is as
a material for cutting tools, although they have
other applications, such as extrusion dies and
blanking punches and dies. Their major alloying
elements are Tungsten, Molybdenum, Chromium and
Vanadium and in special grades cobalt is added to
give superiority in red hardness and abrasion
resistance. Also HSS is more difficult to machine
and grind HSS can be divided into two groups:
Tungsten HSS (Group T) and
Molybdenum HSS (Group M).
11ELEMENTS IN STEEL
Even though the characteristics of both are almost

same, cost is different. Group M is about 30% less
than group T in cost. The general purpose grades of
HSS are T1, M1, and M2 & M10. When the highest
possible red hardness is required in a cutting tool
material, Cobalt high speed steel such as M6 may be
used. But this is higher in cost, difficult to machine,
heat treat and grind.
11ELEMENTS IN STEEL
11.5 INFLUENCE OF ALLOYING ELEMENTS

ON THE PROPERTIES OF HSS-
The desired high hardness, hot strength,
red hardness, toughness and wear resistance of the
tools depends mainly on the presence of alloying
elements present in the HSS.
Tungsten and Molybdenum-
They form carbides (M6) in HSS. These
carbides increase the wear resistance and red
hardness of the tools.
11ELEMENTS IN STEEL
Cobalt
This will increase the hot hardness. Which can
permit higher cutting speeds. Cobalt does not form
carbides. Cobalt will increase the thermal
conductivity and the coercive force while the red
hardness remains unchanged. The durability of
cobalt (content) HSS is 2 to 3 times more due to
higher secondary hardness, wear resistance and
thermal conductivity. Also the melting point of HSS
is raised by the presence of Cobalt.
Chromium
4% chromium is used in HSS to promote the
depth of hardenability.
Vanadium
Due to Vanadium wear resistance increases. But
when the Vanadium content is at higher level the
grindability will be poor.
11ELEMENTS IN STEEL
Selection of HSS
It is clear that no group has all the requisites. The

increase in wear resistance and decrease in toughness
of high carbon high Vanadium super HSS is due to the
increase in carbon and Vanadium content. This is due to
the formation for Vanadium carbide.
The following list can be used for selecting HSS for
different applications.
Boring tool and broaches: - T1, T15, and M2.
Drills of all kind: -T1
Hand Taps T1
Some applications of typical HSS are given below:-
T1----- Hot work drawing, shearing, piercing, press tools
for M.S, twist drills and reamers etc.
M1----- Twist drills, thread cutting tools, reamers and
cutters.
11ELEMENTS IN STEEL
Cast Iron
Cast iron is sometimes used as the main body of
jigs and fixture. By casting metal may be placed to better
advantage and as results the weight of the fixture or jig
may be reduced. The stability and compressive strength of
grey cast iron, as well as its ease of casting make it
suitable for this purpose. Cast iron is also used in
construction of large forming and drawing dies and as a
material for die set shoes.
Mild Steel
M.S. or low carbon steels are used as component
parts of jigs and fixtures where wear resistance and
maximum strength are not necessary. Standard structural
shapes are used in the construction of frame works for
large jigs and fixtures.
Non-metallic tooling materials include Masonite, densified
wood, plastics, ceramics, diamonds etc.
11ELEMENTS IN STEEL
11.6 SPECIFICATION OF STEELS

Steels are specified on the basis of certain criteria
like, the method of manufacturing, chemical
composition, heat treatment, mechanical properties
etc.
Every country has a different way of specifications.
Majorities are based on chemical composition.
11ELEMENTS IN STEEL
11.6.1 INDIAN STANDARD DESIGNATION
SYSTEM (ISI 1961)
Indian standard code for designation of steel was
adopted by ISI in 1961 and it was revises in to two
parts in 1974. Part 1 covers the designation of steel
based on Letter symbols and part 2 covers the
designation of steel based on Numerals.
Code designation on the basis of Mechanical properties
is based on tensile strength or yield strength.
Symbol Fe is used to designate minimum tensile
strength. Symbol FeE is used to designate minimum
yield strength in N/mm2, symbol St is used when
tensile strength is in Kg/ mm2 and StE is used for
Yield strength in Kg/mm2. It is followed by special
characteristics covering method of de-oxidation,
steel quality, degree of purity, surface condition,
weld ability and heat treatment.
11ELEMENTS IN STEEL
Designation of steel on the basis of chemical composition
consists of a numerical figure indicating 100 times the
average percentage of carbon content. Letter C is used
for plain carbon steels and Letter T are used for tool
steel and these are followed by a figure indicating ten
times the average percentage of manganese.
Symbols S, Se, Te, Pb, are P are used to indicate free
cutting steels followed by a figure indicating 100 times
the percent content of the respective element.
Alloy steel are designated in the symbolic form on the basis
of their alloy content by first specifying the average
content of carbon in 100ths of a percent followed by the
chemical symbols of the significant element in the
descending order of percentage content, the nominal or
average percent of each alloying element is indicated by
an index No just after its chemical symbol. If it is tool
steel, letter T should be prefixed before carbon content.
11ELEMENTS IN STEEL
If the average alloy content is up to 1%, the index No
is expressed up to two decimal places underlined by
a bar except for B, N. etc. where they will be
indicated by an alloy symbol only.
For e.g. chromium content is between 0.5% and 0.8%,
it is represented as Cr 65.
If alloy content is between 1 % and 10% the index no
is rounded to the nearest whole no. If it is
necessary, the alloy contents may be rounded of one
place of decimal, the decimal digit being underlined
by a bar e.g. If the chromium content varies
between 1 .20% and 1.60%, it may be represented
either as Cr 1 or Cr 1 4.
11ELEMENTS IN STEEL
If the alloy content is more than 10%, the index no is
rounded to the nearest whole no e.g. if chromium
content is between 12% and 18%, it is represented
as Cr 15.
If two or more significant alloying elements have the
same alloy index, their chemical symbols may be
grouped together followed by their alloy index, e.g.
if a steel contains nickel between 0.9% and 1.3%
and chromium between 1.2% and 1.6% both may be
represented as NiCr 1.
11ELEMENTS IN STEEL
12 DIFFERENT STEEL
12 DIFFERENT STEEL
Hot work steel
Full details are available by clicking on the respective grade.
BHLER Chemical Analysis (%) Standards Stock Programme

Grade C Si Mn Cr Mo Ni V Others Wks No. AISI New
UK Austria Production
W100 0.29 0.25 0.30 2.70 --- -- 0.35 W = 8.50 <1.2581> ~ H21
W300 0.38 1.10 0.40 5.00 1.30 -- 0.40 -- <1.2343> H11
W302 0.39 1.10 0.40 5.20 1.40 -- 0.95 -- <1.2344> H13
W303 0.38 0.40 0.40 5.00 2.80 -- 0.65 -- <1.2367> --
W320 0.31 0.30 0.35 2.90 2.80 -- 0.50 -- <1.2365> ~ H10
W321 0.39 0.30 0.35 2.90 2.80 -- 0.65 Co=2.90 ~1.2885 H10A
W500 0.55 0.25 0.75 1.10 0.50 1.70 0.10 -- <1.2714> ~L6
Co=9.00
W720 0.03 0.10 0.10 -- 5.30 18.50 -- Ti=0.60 ~1.2706 ~Marage
300
Al=0.10
Ti=2.50
W750 0.02 0.20 1.40 15.00 1.30 25.00 0.30 Al=0.25 ~1.2779 ~660
B=0.005
Hot work
steel
H11
Hot work steel-H11
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION (average %)
C Si Mn Cr Mo V
0.36 1.10 0.40 5.00 1.30 0.40
STANDARDS
EN / DIN AISI BS UNI

~ 1.2343 ~ X 37 CrMoV5 1
~H11 ~BH11
~ X38CrMoV 5 1 KU
UNE AFNOR JIS GOST
~ F5317
Z38CDV5 SKD 6 4 Ch 5 MFS
~ X 37 CrMoV 5
Hot work steel-H11
PROPERTIES
Hot work tool steel featuring high impact strength, excellent
hot tensile properties, outstanding air harden ability; admits
water cooling.
APPLICATION
Highly stressed hot work tools; mandrels, dies, and containers
for metal tube and rod extrusion;hot extrusion equipment; tools
and dies for the manufacture of hollow bodies, screws, rivets,
nuts and bolts. Die casting equipment, forming dies, die
inserts, hot shear blades and plastic moulding dies.
Hot work steel-H11
HOT FORMING
Forging: 1100 to 900oC
Slow cooling in furnace or thermo-insulating material.
HEAT TREATMENT
Annealing: 750oC to 800oC
Slow controlled cooling in furnace at a rate of 10 to 20oC per
hour, down to approx. 600oC, further cooling in air.
Hardness after annealing : Max 229 HB
Hot work steel-H11
Stress relieving:600 to 650oC
Slow cooling in furnace; intended to relieve stresses set up be
extensive machining,or in complex shapes. After through heating,
hold in neutral atmosphere for one to two hours.
Hardening: 1000 to 1040oC
Oil, salt bath (500 to 550oC), air
Holding time after temperature equalization: 15 to 30 minutes
Obtainable hardness: 50 - 54 HRc (Oil, Salt Bath or
Air)
Hot work steel-H11
Tempering: Slow heating to tempering temperature immediately after
hardening / time in furnace. One hour for each 20mm of work piece thickness but
at least two hours cooling in air.It is recommended to temper as least twice. A
third tempering cycle for the purpose of stress relieving may be advantageous.
1ST TEMPER: Approx. 30oC above maximum secondary hardness.
2ND TEMPER: Temper to desired working hardness
3RD TEMPER: For stress relieving, at a temperature 30 - 50oC below
highest tempering temperature
Hot work
steel
H13
Hot work steel-H13
C Si Mn Cr Mo V
0.39 1.00 0.40 5.10 1.30 1.00
STANDARDS

<1.2344>
H13 BH13 X40CrMoV5-11 KU
X40CrMoV5-1
UNE AFNOR JIS GOST
F5318
Z40CDV5 SKD61 4Ch5MF1S
X40CrMoV5
Hot work steel-H13
PROPERTIES
Hot work tool steel featuring excellent hot tensile
properties, high hot wear resistance, adequate
toughness and heat checking resistance; admits
water cooling.
BOHLER W302 is also available in special
grades ISODISC and ISOBLOC with improved
homogeneity and increased tough
APPLICATION
Heavy duty hot work tools and dies, mainly for
light alloy processing: mandrels, dies, and
containers for metal tube and rod extrusion; hot
extrusion equipment; tools and dies for the
manufacture of hollow bodies, screws, rivets,
nuts and bolts. Die casting equipment, forming
dies, die inserts, hot shear blades and plastic
moulding dies
Hot work steel-H13
HOT FORMING
Slow cooling in furnace or thermo-insulating
material.
HEAT TREATMENT
Slow controlled cooling in furnace at a rate
of 10 to 20oC per hour, down to
approx. 600oC, further cooling in air.
Hot work steel-H13
Slow cooling in furnace; intended to relieve
stresses set up be extensive machining, or in
complex shapes. After through heating, hold in
neutral atmosphere for one to two hours.
Holding time after temperature equalisation: 15
to 30 minutes
Obtainable hardness: 52 - 54 HRc (Oil or Salt
Bath), 50 - 54 HRc (Air)
Hot work steel-H13
hardening / time in furnace. One hour for each 20mm of work piece
thickness but at least two hours cooling in air.
It is recommended to temper as least twice. A third tempering cycle for
the purpose of stress relieving may be advantageous.
1ST TEMPER: Approx. 30oC above maximum secondary
hardness.
3RD TEMPER: For stress relieving, at a temperature 30 - 50oC
below highest tempering temperature
Hot work
steel
H10
Hot work steel-H10
C Si Mn Cr Mo V
0.31 0.30 0.35 2.90 2.80 0.50
STANDARDS

<1.2365>
~ H10 BH10 30CrMoV12 27 KU
X32CrMoV 3 3
UNE AFNOR JIS GOST
F5313
32DCV 28 SKD 7 3 Ch 3 M3F
30CrMoV 12
Hot work steel-H10
PROPERTIES
Hot work tool steel featuring fine combination of heat
checking resistance, hot strength, and impact
strength, admits water cooling.
APPLICATION
Highly stressed hot work tools, mainly for the
processing of heavy alloys such as; mandrels,
dies,and containers for metal tube and rod extrusion;
hot extrusion equipment; tools and dies for the
manufacture of hollow bodies, screws, rivets, nuts
and bolts. Die casting equipment, forming dies, die
inserts, hot shear blades.
Hot work steel-H10
HOT FORMING
HEAT TREATMENT
Slow controlled cooling in furnace at a rate of 10 to 20oC per
hour, down to approx. 600oC, further cooling in air.
Slow cooling in furnace;
intended to relieve stresses set up be
extensive machining, or in complex
shapes. After through heating, hold in neutral
atmosphere for one to
two hours.
Oil, salt bath (500 to 550oC)
Holding time after temperature equalisation:
15 to 30 minutes
Obtainable hardness: 52 - 56 HRc
Hot work steel-H10
Tempering: Slow heating to tempering temperature immediately after hardening /
time in furnace. One hour for each 20mm of work piece thickness but at least two
hours cooling in air.It is recommended to temper as least twice. A third tempering
cycle for the purpose of stress relieving may be advantageous.
1ST TEMPER: To maximum secondary hardness.
2ND TEMPER: To desired working hardness
3RD TEMPER: For stress relieving, at a temperature 30 - 50oC below
highest
tempering temperature
Hot work
steel
H21
Hot work steel-H21
C Si Mn Cr V W
0.29 0.25 0.30 2.70 0.35 8.50
STANDARDS

<1.2581>
~ H21 BH21 X30WCrV9 3 KU
X30 WCrV9 3
UNE AFNOR JIS GOST
~ F 5323
~Z30WCV9 ~SKD 5 3 Ch 2 V 8 F
~ X30 WCrV 9
Hot work steel-H21
PROPERTIES
Hot work tool steel for oil or air hardening to develop
high hot strength, retention of hardness and heat
checking resistance.
APPLICATION
Highly stressed hot work tools; mandrels, dies, and
containers for metal tube and rod extrusion; hot
extrusion equipment; tools and dies for the
manufacture of hollow bodies, screws, rivets, nuts
and bolts. Die casting equipment, forming dies, die
inserts, hot shear blades.
Hot work steel-H21
HOT FORMING
material.
HEAT TREATMENT
Slow controlled cooling in furnace at a rate of 10
to 20oC per hour, down to approx. 600oC, further
cooling in air.
complex shapes. After through heating, hold in
to 30 minutes
Obtainable hardness: 48 - 52 HRc (Oil or
Salt Bath), 44 - 48 HRc (Air )
Hot work steel-H21
hardening / time in furnace. One hour for each 20mm of work piece thickness but
at least two hours cooling in air.
It is recommended to temper as least twice. A third tempering cycle for the
purpose
of stress relieving may be advantageous.
1ST TEMPER: Approx. 30oC above maximum secondary
hardness.
3RD TEMPER: For stress relieving, at a temperature 30 - 50oC
below highest tempering temperature
Cold work steel
Cold work
steel
D3
Cold work steel-D3
C Si Mn Cr
2.00 0.25 0.30 11.50
STANDARDS
<1.2080>
~D3 ~BD3 X205Cr12 KU
X210Cr12
UNE AFNOR JIS GOST
F5212
Z200C12 ~SKD1 ~Ch 12
X210Cr12
Cold work steel-D3
PROPERTIES
Standard grade of dimensionally stable , high
carbon, 12% chromium tool steel.
APPLICATION
- Blanking, Punching and Shearing.
- Machining.
- Shaping.
- Wear resisting tools and components.
- Measuring tools.
Cold work steel-D3
HOT FORMING
material.
HEAT TREATMENT
Annealing: 800 to 850oC
Slow controlled cooling in furnace at a rate of
10 to 20oC per hour, down to approx. 600oC,
further cooling in air.
Cold work steel-D3
Stress relieving:650oC
Slow cooling in furnace; intended to relieve stresses set
up be extensive machining,or in complex shapes. After
through heating, hold in neutral atmosphere for one to
two hours.
Oil, salt bath (220 to 250oC or 500 to 550oC),
compressed or still air if thickness does not exceed 25mm
and if hardening temperature is on the upper side of the
range.
Holding time after temperature equalization: 15 to 30
minutes
Cold work steel-D3
Tempering: Slow heating to tempering temperature
immediately after hardening / time in furnace. One hour for
each 20mm of work piece thickness but at least two hours
cooling in air.
For average hardness figures to be obtained please refer to the
tempering chart.
For certain cases we recommend to reduce the tempering
temperature and increase the holding time.
Cold work
steel
D2
Cold work steel-D2
C Si Mn Cr Mo V
1.55 0.30 0.30 11.80 0.80 0.95
STANDARDS

~1.2379
D2 ~BD2 X155CrVMo12 1 KU
~X155CrVMo12-1
UNE AFNOR JIS GOST
~F5211
~Z160CDV12 ~SKD11 ~Ch12F1
~X160CrMoV12
Cold work steel-D2
PROPERTIES
Dimensionally stable high
carbon, 12% chromium tool
steel. Particularly suitable
for air hardening.Features
good toughness
APPLICATION
High duty cutting tools (dies and punches), blanking
and punching tools, woodworking tools, shear blades
for cutting light gauge material, thread rolling tools,
tools for drawing, deep drawing and cold extrusion,
pressing tools for ceramics and pharmaceutical
industries, cold rolls (working rolls) for multiple-roll
stands, measuring instruments and gauges, small
moulds for plastic processing where excellent wear
resistance is required.
Cold work steel-D2
HOT FORMING
Forging: 1050 to 850 oC
material.
HEA T TREA TMENT
A nnealing: 800 to 850 oC
Slow controlled cooling in furnace at a rate
of 10 to 20 oC per hour, down to approx.
600 oC, further cooling in air.
Cold work steel-D2
Stress relieving:650 to 700 oC
complex shapes. A fter through heating, hold in
Hardening: 1020 to 1040 oC
Complex shapes / air, simple shapes / air blast,
oil, salt bath from (220 to 250 oC or 500 to
550 oC)
to 30 minutes
Cold work steel-D2
Tempering:Slow heating to tempering temperature
cooling in air.
tempering chart. For certain cases we recommend to reduce
the tempering temperature and increase the holding time.
Where applications require improved retention of hardness, a
nitriding treatment is recommended.
Nitriding: From this treatment a minimum
hardness of the base material of approx. 60 HRc will
result. If maximum dimensional stability is required,
the tempering temperature should be at least equal
to the subsequent nitriding temperature.
After nitriding, stress relieving at
about 300oC is recommended.
If salt bath nitriding is used, we
recommend elevated hardening temperatures (1060
- 1080oC) with subsequent tempering in two cycles.
1ST: 520oC
2ND: At 30 -50oC below first
tempering temperature.
Bath nitriding, e.g; Tufftride process is carried out at
570oC holding at 30minutes for a depth of nitration
of 0.03mm.
Cold work
steel
D6
Cold work steel-D6
C Si Mn Cr W
2.10 0.35 0.35 11.50 0.70
STANDARDS

<1.24.36>
~D6 -- X215CrW12 1KU
X210CrW12
UNE AFNOR SIS GOST
~F5213
-- ~2312 --
~X210CrW12
Cold work steel-D6
PROPERTIES
Dimensionally stable 12% chromium steel,
possessing superior wear resistance, suitable for air
hardening.
APPLICATION
- Blanking, Punching and Shearing
- Machining
- Chip less shaping
- Wear resisting tools and components
- Measuring tools
- Hot work tools
Cold work steel-D6
HOT FORMING
HEAT TREATMENT
Slow controlled cooling in furnace at a rate of 10 to 20oC
per hour, down to approx. 600oC, further cooling in air.
Slow cooling in furnace; intended to relieve stresses set
up be extensive machining,or in complex shapes. After
through heating, hold in neutral atmosphere for one to
two hours
Oil, salt bath (220 to 250oC or 400 to 450oC),
compressed or still air
Tools of intricate shape or with sharp edges
should be hardened in air or salt bath.Holding
time after temperature equalization: 15 to 30
minutes
Cold work steel-D6
cooling in air.
For average hardness figures to be obtained please refer to
the tempering chart.
Cold work
steel
O1
Cold work steel-O1
C Si Mn Cr V W
0.95 0.25 1.10 0.55 0.10 0.55
STANDARDS

<1.2510>
O1 BO1 95MnWCr5 KU
100MnCrW4
UNE AFNOR JIS GOST
F5220
90MWCV5 ~SKS3 ~9ChVG
95MnCrW5
Cold work steel-O1
PROPERTIES
Cold work tool steel for oil hardening with minimum
size change.
APPLICATION
Cutting tools (dies and punches), blanking and
punching tools, threading tools, woodworking
tools, machine knives for timber, paper and metal
industries, measuring tools and gauges, moulds for
the plastics industry
Cold work steel- O1
HOT FORMING
Slow cooling in furnace or
thermo-insulating material.
HEAT TREATMENT
Slow controlled cooling in
furnace at a rate of 10 to 20oC per hour, down
to approx. 600oC, further cooling in air.
stresses set up be extensive machining, or in complex
shapes. After through heating, hold in neutral atmosphere
for one to
two hours.
Oil, salt bath (200 to 250oC) up to 20mm thickness
Holding time after temperature equalisation: 15 to 30
minutes
Cold work steel-O1
immediately after hardening / time in furnace. One hour for each
20mm of workpiece thickness but at least two hours cooling in
air.
tempering chart.
Cold work
steel
O2
Cold work steel-O2
C Si Mn Cr V
0.90 0.25 2.00 0.35 0.13
STANDARDS
EN / DIN AISI BS UNI AFNOR

<1.2842>
~O2 ~BO2 90MnVCr8 KU ~90MV8
90MnCrv8
Cold work steel-O2
PROPERTIES
Oil hardening, dimensionally stable cold work
tool steel.
APPLICATION
Punches and dies for Blanking, threading and
wood working tools, machine knives for pulp,
paper and metalworking industries, measuring
tools and plastic moulds
Cold work steel- O2
HOT FORMING
Slow cooling in furnace or thermo-
insulating material.
HEAT TREATMENT
Slow controlled cooling in furnace at a rate of 10 to
20oC per hour, down to
approx. 600oC, further cooling in air.

Slow cooling in furnace;
intended to relieve stresses set up be extensive
machining, or in complex shapes. After through
heating, hold in neutral atmosphere for one to
two hours.
oil, salt bath (200 to 250oC) up to 20mm
thickness
Holding time after temperature equalizations: 15
to 30 minutes
Cold work steel-O2
immediately after hardening / time in furnace. One hour for each
20mm of workpiece thickness but at least two hours cooling in
air.
tempering chart.
Cold work
steel
A2
Cold work steel-A2
C Si Mn Cr Mo V
0.98 0.30 0.50 5.10 1.00 0.15
STANDARDS

<1.2363>
~ A2 BA2 ~X100CrMoV5 1KU
X100CrMoV5 1
UNE AFNOR JIS GOST
~F5227
~Z100CDV5 ~SKD12 ~9Ch5VF
~X100CrMoV5 1KU
Cold work steel-A2
PROPERTIES
Oil hardening, dimensionally stable cold work
tool steel.
APPLICATION
Punches and dies for Blanking, threading
and wood working tools, machine knives for
pulp, paper and metalworking industries,
measuring tools and plastic moulds
Cold work steel- A2
HOT FORMING
material.
HEAT TREATMENT
Slow controlled cooling in furnace at a rate of
10 to 20oC per hour, down to approx. 600oC,
further cooling in air.
stresses set up be extensive machining, or in complex
shapes. After through heating, hold in neutral atmosphere for
one to
two hours.
Air, salt bath (200 to 250oC or 400 to 450oC), oil.
Tools of intricate shape or with sharp edges should preferably
be hardened in air or salt bath. Holding time at hardening
temperature: 15 to 30 minutes.
Cold work steel-A2
Tempering: Slow heating to tempering
temperature immediately after hardening / time in
furnace.One hour for each 20mm of work piece
thickness but at least two hours cooling in air. For
average hardness figures to be obtained please
refer to the tempering chart
Cold work
steel
W1
Cold work steel-W1
C Si Mn P S
1.05 0.20 0.20 max 0.020 max 0.020
STANDARDS

<1.1545>
W1 BW1B C100KU
C10W1
UNE AFNOR JIS GOST
F5117
Y1105 SK3 ~U10
C102
Cold work steel-W1
PROPERTIES
Carbon Steel.
APPLICATION
Thread cutting dies, upsetting dies,
woodworking tools, cold punches, deep
drawing, extrusion and embossing tools,
end blocks
Cold work steel- W1
HOT FORMING
material.
HEAT TREATMENT
Slow controlled cooling in furnace at a rate of 10 to
20oC per hour, down to approx. 600oC, further
cooling in air.
Slow cooling in furnace; intended to
relieve stresses set up be extensive machining, or in
complex shapes. After through heating, hold in neutral
atmosphere for one to
two hours.
Hardening: 770 to 800oC Water
Holding time after temperature equalisation: 10 to 20
minutes
Obtainable hardness: 65HRc
Hardness penetration for 30mm square (average):
2.5mm
Full hardening diameter mm (average): 10mm
Cold work steel-W1
each 20mm of workpiece thickness but at least two hours
cooling in air.
For average hardness figures to be obtained please refer to
the tempering chart.
13 NON- FERROUS METALS AND ALLOYS
13.0 Introduction
Non-ferrous metals and alloys are used for special purpose in
engineering field. Non ferrous metals and alloys are not
iron based (Ferrous means iron)
The common nonferrous materials are the following metallic
elements and their alloys:-
Aluminum, Copper, Nickel, Zinc, Tin, Lead, Magnesium,
Cobalt etc.
Purpose or Need for non-metal and alloys
1) They are used where resistance to corrosion is essential
2) They also possess special electrical and magnetic
properties
3) They also possess low density can have some attractive
colour
They have good fusibility, ease of casting and formability
They are soft, which facilitates for cold working.
13NON- FERROUS METALS AND ALLOYS
13.1 Aluminum and its Alloys
Aluminum is a silvery white metal and is possesses the
following characteristics or properties
1) It is a light metal (having a density of 2.7)
2) It is a very good conductor of electricity
3) It has a higher resistance of corrosion.
4) It is a good conductor of heat
5) It is very ductile
6) It is a non-magnetic
Melting point of pure aluminum is 600C.
It is good reflector of light and other radiant energy.
Although pure aluminum is not particularly strong, it forms
high strength alloys in conjunction with other metals, such
as (copper, chromium, nickel, silicon, zinc etc)
1) They are malleable and ductile
2) They exhibit toughness and become stronger at
temperatures below the ordinary atmospheric range.
3) Some of the aluminums alloys are more than four times as
strong as same the weight of mild steel.
4) Aluminum and its alloys can be
a) Cast (b) welded (c) Rolled (d) forged (e) extruded.
Uses of Aluminum and its Alloys
Aluminum and its alloys are frequently used for
1) Transportation industry: - Structures are made.
2) In food industry: - Food preparation equipments (pans etc)
refrigeration, storage containers.
3) In architectural fields: - Window frames, roofing,
fasteners, grills etc
4) As heavy-duty structure: - convey or supports bridges
etc.
5) In process industries parts made up of aluminum an its
alloys are used to handle organic chemicals petrochemicals
and drugs
6) Cryogenic applications
Overhead conductors and heat exchange parts.
Used in metallurgical industry, as it is a powerful deoxidiser.
Generally used as container for plastics, rubber, rayons,
synthetic resins, etc.
Types of Aluminum Alloys
Aluminum alloys can be classified as
1) Wrought Alloys
2) Cast Alloys
3) Heat treatable Alloys
4) Non heat treatable alloys
Aluminum alloys - casting Applications
a) Piston and cylinder heads
b) Air and water-cooled, cylinder blocks, valve bodies etc.
c) Sand casting and gravity die casting suitable for
architectural ornamental and marine applications
d) Sprit levels, molding flask etc.
e) Vacuum cleaners, cast utensils steam pipes
Important aluminium alloys
Aluminium Silicon and Al-Si-Cu alloys
Composition- LM6-12%Si and LM2- 10%Si, 2% Cu
Uses: -
Used for automobile castings, Water cooled manifolds, motor
housings, pump parts.
Aluminium-Magnesium Alloys (Magnelium)
Composition:- LM5-5% Mg, 0.5%Mn and LM10-10% Mg.
Uses:-
Used for aircraft and automobile components, dairy equipments,
architectural work.
Aluminium Copper alloys
Composition:-LM 11-4.5% Cu- Similar to Duralumin.
Uses:-
For Aircraft castings.
Y-alloy
Composition:- LM14-4%Cu, 2% Ni, 1.5% Mg
Uses:-
For pistons and Cylinder Heads of Diesel and Heavy duty petrol
engines.
13.2 Copper
Copper is red in colour and has a crystalline structure
and it possesses the following properties
1) Excellent resistance to corrosion
2) High thermal and electrical conductivity
3) Non magnetic properties
4) It is ductile and malleable
5) Very good mach inability
6) Resistance to fatigue, abrasion and corrosion
7) It can be soldered, brazed or welded
8) It can be easily polished, plated and possesses a pleasing
appearance
9) Ease of forming alloys with other elements like zinc, tin,
aluminum, lead, silicon, nickel etc.
10) Melting point of copper is 1080C.
Uses of copper
Copper is used for the following
(1) Electrical parts, Condensers, heat exchangers, household
utensils, bus bars etc.
(2) Automobile radiators, pressure vessels.
(3) For bolts, studs, welding tips.
13.3 Types of Copper Alloys.
1) Copper zinc alloy (Brass)
Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc it has high
resistance to corrosion and is easily machinable. It also
acts as good bearing material. Zinc in the brass increase
ductility along with strength. Brass possesses greater
strength than copper. However it has a lower thermal and
electrical conductivity. The properties of brass varies with
the percentage of zinc varies from 5 - 45%.
Types of Brasses
Brasses are classified based on
1. Structure- alpha brasses, alpha beta brasses
2. Colour- red brass and yellow brass.
Alpha brass contain zinc less than 30% and alpha-beta brass
contain zinc between 30-44%.
Alpha Brass-They are soft, ductile, malleable and have good
corrosion resistance. These are suitable for cold working.
Types of Alpha-Brass
Cap Copper-contains zinc between 2-5%. It is very
ductile. Used for caps of detonators.
Gilding Metal- contains zinc 5-15%. Used for bullet
envelopes, containers, condenser tubes, coins, emblems,
jewellery.
Cartridge brass (70-30 Brass) contains zinc 30%. Used
for cartridge cases, radiator fins, lamp fixtures, rivets,
springs.
Admiralty Brass-contains zinc 30% and Tin 1%. Used for
condensor tubes and heat exchangers.
Alpha-Beta Brass
They contain zinc between 30-40%, they are hard, strong,
compared to alpha brasses, and they are hot worked.
Types of Alpha-Beta Brasses
Muntz Metal (60-40 Brass)- contain zinc 40%. Used
for utensils, shafts, nuts, bolts, pump parts,
condensor tubes.
Naval Brass (Also called Tobin Brass)- Contain
zinc 39% and Tin 1%, used for marine hardware,
propeller shafts, piston rods, nuts and bolts,
welding rods.
Leaded Brass-contain zinc 39% and lead 1-3%. Used
for parts requiring high machinability.
High Tensile Brass-contain zinc 39%, Fe 2%, Mn 1%,
used for marine engine pumps, ships, propellers,
gears, and valve bodies.
Brazing Brass- contains Zinc 50% and is very brittle.
Used for brazing purpose.
2) Copper Tin alloy (Bronze)
Bronze is basically an alloy of copper and tin. It
possesses superior mechanical property and corrosion
resistance than brass. It is comparatively hard and it
resists surface wear. It can be shaped in to various
forms. The tin content varies from 10 -15%.
Types Of Bronze and uses:
Aluminium Bronze- contain aluminium 4 to 11%, Fe, Ni, Mn,
Si are added in small amount.
Properties:
Good Strength, ductility and toughness.
Good bearing properties.
Good Corrosion resistance.
Good fatigue resistance
Good lustre
Uses:
For jewelry, heat exchangers, chemical plants, pimp castings,
valve fittings, cylinder heads, gears, dies, bearings, spark
plug bodies and electrical parts,
Tin Bronzes -contain tin 8-25%, zinc 1-2%
Properties:
Good ductility and malleability
Good corrosion resistance.
Uses:
For making coins, pumps, gears, bearings, bells, statues, pipe
fittings, ornamental fixtures, gun barrels.
Beryllium Bronzes- contain beryllium 2%

Properties:
Good corrosion and fatigue resistance.
Good bearing properties.
High resilience.
Uses:
Used for springs, diaphragms, bellows, gears, bearings, and
electrical contacts.
Silicon Bronze- contain silicon 1-5%
Properties:
High resistance to corrosion.
High tensile strength
High toughness.
Uses:
For high strength bolts, rivets, springs, propeller shafts,
bells.
13.3 Nickel and its Alloys
Nickel is a hard lusterless white metal and it posses the
following properties.
1) It possesses good corrosion and oxidation resistance.

2) It has high tensile strength and can be easily formed hot
and cold.
3) It can be fabricated using processes similar for mild steel
4) It can take up high polish.
5) It is Ferro-magnetic of ordinary and low temperature but
becomes paramagnetic at elevated temperature.
6) Melting point of nickel is1453oC
NOTE: - Ferro magnetic: - Strong attraction by the magnetic
field
Para magnetic: - Week attraction by the magnetic
field.
Uses and application of nickel
1) Nickel is used for in electroplating
2) In electronic and low current electrical application
3) For corrosion protection of iron and steel part and zinc
based die-casting used in the automotive field.
4) Incandescent lamp and radio industries
5) In permanent magnet
6) In the chemical industry for the construction of
evaporators tanks, heating coils and tubular condensers.
13.3.1 Types of Nickel alloys
A) Nickel-copper alloys
The major nickel base alloy with copper in Monel
Properties of Monel
1) It has a brighter appearance than nickel
2) It is stronger than mild steel
3) It has excellent resistance to atmospheric and sea water-
corrosion
4) Generally it is more resistant than nickel to acid, less
resistance to alkalis and equally resistant to salt.
Uses and application of Monel
Monel is used in architectural and marine application
where appearance and corrosion resistance is important
and in specialized equipment used by the food
pharmaceutical, paper, oil and chemical industries.
B) Nickel- Copper- Zinc alloys (nickel silver )
Nickel copper zinc alloys the known as nickel silver, do
not contain silver and in actually they are brasses with
sufficient nickel added to give a silvery white color
improved corrosion resistance and high strength.
These alloys are used as low cost substitutes with silver
in tableware and jewellary usually with silver or gold
electroplate on the surface. Nickel silvers are also
construction material for many musical, drafting and
scientific instruments and also used for marine and
architectural parts.
14 TESTING OF MATERIAL
14.0 Purpose or Need for testing material
To access numerically the fundamentals mechanical properties
such as ductility, malleability, toughness, hardness,
strength etc.
To determine the suitability of material for a particular
application.
To determine the surface or subsurface defects in raw
material or processed parts
To determine data i.e. the force, deformation or stress
values to draw graphs of specification upon which the
engineer can base his design
14.1 Types (classification) of testing material
1) Destructive Test
After being destructively tested the component or
specimen either breaks or remains no longer useful for
feature use. The e.g. of destructive test are tensile
test, impact test, fatigue test, bend test, torsion test
etc.
2) Non destructive test
A component does not break in non-destructive testing
and even after being tested. As it can be used for the
purpose for which it was made. Examples for non-
destructive test are radiography, ultra sonic inspection
etc.
3) Process inspection (process test)
The name of process inspection or process test may come
from the type of manufacture where it is performed such
as foundry, welding assembly etc. There is first piece
inspection or final inspection or sampling and check
inspection. The location often associates the name of
inspection as in receiving or incoming inspection, store or
14.2 Destructive Test
14.2.1Tensile Test
It is one of the most widely used mechanical tests. It
is performed on a universal testing machine (UTM). A
tensile test helps in determining tensile properties such as
tensile strength; yield point, percentage elongation,
percentage reduction in area and modulus of elasticity
It should be carried out preferably on full size standard
test pieces. Fig (14.1a) shows a specimen for tensile
strength. The essential features of a round test
specimen are diameter Do, parallel length PL, gauge length
Lo and fillet radius r. The typical dimension are
Do=12mm, LO=50 for short piece 10 X Do for long piece.
Parallel length PL=55mm and radius r = 3mm
Before commencing the test two gauge marks are made on

the specimen longitudinally usually 50mm-200mm apart
according to the size of the test piece. Gripping the ends
EE of the specimen in the tensile testing machine carries
out tensile test and applying and increasing pull on to the
specimen till it fracture (fig 14.1b)
During the test the tensile loads as well as the elongation of
previously marked gauge length in the specimen is
measured with the help of load dial of the machine and
extensometer respectively. These reading help in plotting
stress-strain curve.
After fracture the two pieces of broken specimen are placed
as if fixed together and distance Lf between the two
gauge marks and diameter Df of the place of fracture are
measured.
Fig 14.1a,b,c
15 ORGANIC MATERIALS
Introduction
Organic materials are those materials that are derived
from carbon.
They consist of carbon chemically combined with
hydrogen, oxygen or other non metallic substances.
Covalent or homo-polar bond is most usual type of bond in
organic materials (Carbon share the valance electron very
readily ).
Compounds which essentially contain carbon atom along
with other non metallic atoms (hydrogen ,oxygen, chloride)
known as organic compounds .
IMPORTANT ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
1.Saturated organic compounds

2.Un Saturated organic compounds
3.Aromatic organic compounds.
Different organic martial used in Engineering
Natural organic materials:- They include

wood,cotton,natural rubber,coal,petrolium,and
food products etc.
Synthetic organic materials:- They include
synthetic rubber, plastics, iubricants,soap
oil,synthetic fibers, etc.
POLYMERS
A polymer is a molecule build up by the
repetition of small ,simple chemical units.
In some case the repetition is linear ,as a chain
build up from links
In some case the chains are branched or inter
connected to form three-dimensional networks
Polymers are generally non-crystalline solids at
ordinary temperature.
Polymers are not only made from carbon but
also from inorganic chemicals such as silicates
and silicon's.
Polymer is nearly equivalent to a monomer or
the starting material from which polymer is
formed.
Example
A repeated unit of Polyethylene ( - CH2- CH2 - ) is

CH2= CH2.
Degree of polymerization
It is the number of repetitive units present

in one molecule of a polymer.
Degree of polymerization =
Molecular weight of polymer

Molecular weight of a single monomer
Linear polymers:-
it is a polymer ,which is obtained by simply adding the monomers to form long
chains
Co-polymer:-
it is a polymer ,which is obtained by adding different monomers.
Cross-linked polymer:-
it is a polymer ,which is obtained by connecting long chains throw a covalent bond.
Thermo plastics:-
These are linear polymers whose plasticity increases with rise in temperature .
Thermo set plastics:-

These are linear polymers whose plasticity does not change with rise in temperature
.
There are two type of polymers
Natural polymers:-This include

protein,ceiiuloid,resin,starch,shellac,and
lignin.they are commenly found in leather ,fur
,wool,cotton,silk,rubber,rape,wood and many
others.
Synthetic polymers :-This include poly-ethylene
,poly styrene ,nylon,terline,Dacron.They are
commenly found in plastics ,fibers and
elastomers .The properties of Synthetic
polymers are superior than those found in
Natural polymers
Mechanism of polymerization
Polymerization is nothing but forming of polymer. in this

process monomers are linked together to form a polymer
Polymerization lie on the necessity of breaking the
double bonds (c=c) of monomers.
The process requires 612 kJ/ 6.02 X 1023 bonds. energy
384 kJ /6.02 x 1023 bonds energy is released every time
in the formation of a single C-C bond.
The linking of monomers will continue till the end of
availability of molecules in the immediate ends of chains.
H H H H H H H
C=C - C - C -C - C - C-
H H H H H H H
Monomers should also have two ore more

reactions sides at which junction may be made
to form a chain of monomers the example above
shown has two reaction sides called as BI-
functional monomer
Other molecule with three or four reactions sides
called a Tri & Tetra functional monomer
respectively.
Still higher functionality, while theoretically
possible does not generally occur in practice
because of space limitations
Type of polymerization
There are two type of polymerization,

which result in the formation of certain
type of polymeric structure.
Addition polymerization
Condensation polymerization
Addition polymerization
It is a polymerization process, where the polymers has

the same composition as monomer or monomers from
which it is formed .It is also called chain polymerization
It take place in un saturated organic compounds
These compounds are relatively un stable as compared
to saturated organic compounds.
Under suitable conditions such as high-pressure
,Temperature, and presence of catalysts un saturated
organic compounds form long chains.
Double covalent bond is broken and single bonds are
formed in its place
Addition polymerization process
Temp,pressure,catalyst
Monomer+monomer polymers
H H H H H H H H
C=C + C = C - C C - C -C -
H H H H H H H H
Ethylene+ Ethylene polyethylene

Addition polymerization process
H H H H H H H H
C=C + C = C - C C - C -C -
H Cl H Cl H Cl H Cl
Vinyl chloride + Vinyl chloride poly Vinyl chloride (PVC)
Co- polymerization is another kind of addition polymerization in which

two or more chemically different monomers are polymerized to form
long chain molecules
For example
H H H H H H H H
C=C + C = C - C C - C -C -
H Cl H O.Co.CH3 H Cl H O.Co.CH3
Vinyl chloride + Vinyl acetate Co-polymer

POLYMARISATION TAKE PLACE IN THREE
STEPS:-
(1)Initiation
When free radicals (having odd number of
electrons) are generated in the presence
of a vinyl monomer, the radicals add to the
double bond with the generation of
another radical .The regeneration of
radical is characteristics of chain reaction
(2)Progration
The chain radical formed in the initiation step is
capable of adding successive monomer to
propagate the chain .propagation would
continue until the supply of monomers was
exhausted
(3)Termination
It take place in two ways namely combination or
coupling or disproporstionation , in which
hydrogen transfer result in the formation of two
molecule with one saturated or un saturated end
group
Condensation polymerization
In this case the polymer formed does not have the same
composition as the monomer or monomer from which it
is formed .the polymerization is accompanied by the
elimination of small molecule like H2O,HCI,etc
Depending upon the monomer. The kind of polymer

formed may be linear branched or cross-linked polymer.
The process requires suitable conditions such as high-

pressure ,Temperature, and presence of catalysts
Condensation polymerization process
pressure ,Temperature and catalysts
Monomer +Monomer polymer +BI product (vapor)
Example
H H H H
HC-OH + H C C OH H -C-O-C-C-H +H2O
H H O H O H
Methyl alcohol + Acetic acid Easter (polymer) +water

Condensation polymerization is a step wise regular
process where there is steady increase in molecular
weight .the monomer disappears in the early stage of the
reaction and the polymer is formed. The catalyst used in
the condensation process is a true catalyst remaining un
changed .
A condensation product may be either a thermoset or
thermoplast.poly amides ,polyesters, amino plastics ,etc
are some of the condensation products.
ADDITIVES TO POLYMERS
Most polymers are seldom used as a pure organic resins.

But they are modified compounded with various additives to
modify the mechanical , chemical, and physical properties
The various additives used for this purpose are
1. Plasticizers
2. Fillers
3. Catalysts
4. Initiators
5. Pigments
Plasticizers
Plasticizers organic compounds of low molecular weight and oil

in nature
Plasticizers are added to improve
1. The flow and hence improve the prossesability

2. To reduce the brittleness
3. Plasticizers act as internal lubricants and prevent crystallization by
keeping the chain separated form one another
The effect of plasticizers on thermoplastic material
1. To give a more flexible rubber like nature

Plasticizer and uses
S.no Type of plasticizer Uses

1 Phthalate esters Accounting for over half the total
volume of plasticizer used
2 Phosphate esters Flame proofing

3 Adiphates,azelates Used in vinyl resins to
,oleates,sebacates improve low temperature
flexibility
4 Fatty acid Easters, Secondary plasticizer
hydrocarbons
Filler materials
Filler materials include finally powdered saw dust,silics
flour, and sand , glass ,clay ,talc ,lime stone ,etc
Filler materials are added to Improve

1. tensile strength
2. compasinative strength
3. absorption resistance
4. Toughness
5. Dimensional and thermal stability
Filler materials
Major advantage
Filler material replace some volume of

more expensive polymer ,hence cost is
reduced
Dyes and pigments
These are added to impart the desire
colour to finish polymers
pigments Uses
phthalocyanies Transparent colour
In organic pigments Opacity to the plastics
Dyes
Dyes colour
Titanium oxide & white
Barium sulfate
Phthalocyanien Blue & Ultimate blue ,Chrome
Green green
Quinocridone magenta
Flake aluminum Silver metallic

Classification of polymer structure
According to the shape of the
macromolecules, polymer structure may
be broadly classified as
Linear and frame work structure
Branched-chain stricture
Cross linked chain stricture
Crystalline structure
Linear polymer structure consist of long chains in which
individual long chain molecules are quit separated from
one another
Only Van-der walls bond hold adjacent chains
Linear polymer normally have a tangled structure
Molecular chains are difficult to distinguish
Tri functional & tetra functional form network stricture
Frame work structural polymer have distinctive
mechanical and thermal properties
Example for linear structure polymers are polyethylene
poly vinyl chloride, poly styrene, nylon, and fluoro
carbons
Phenol formaldehyde is one of the polymer having frame
work structure
Linear polymer structure
Branch or chain linked stricture
Polymers may be synthesized in which side
branch chains are connected to the main chain
During the synchronization the number of
branches and the ratio of the main chain to the
side chain may vary
Branches of different monomers species can be
added or grafted (Graft co-polymer)
Polymer will be stronger and less plastic due to
simple inter locking of branches
Example natural rubber and acryl nitric
v
v v
Branch or chain linked stricture

Cross linked chain structure
Linear chains are joined one to another

The process is achieved by
1.By synthesis
2.By nonreversible chemical reaction
Cross linking is done to
increase strength
Reduce plasticity
Many of the rubber elastic materials are cross-
linked , in rubber the cross linking is called
vulcanization
v
v
v
Cross linked chain structure

It is determined by the geometry of polymer chains.
Crystallinity totally depends upon the packing of linear
polymer chains.
As the packing become more apart ,due to irregularities
the structure become amorphous.
ELASTOMERS
When flexibility is in a material is required , the crystallite is un
desirable when a when a polymer compressing linear chain is
elongated ,and there is an initial and almost linear elastic
region .the polymer which posses this type of behaviour are
known as elastomers .
Polymer example uses
characteristics
Some Poly Pipe, thin films,
crystallinity, ethylene buckets
flexible chains Fibers ,rope, hot
Poly water tubing
propylene
Pipe, toys, electrical
Poly vinyl conductors, fabric.
chloride
Mechanical
Nylon component
Polymer example
characteristics
Crystalline domains Terylene Fibers and clothing
well developed
Cellulose
acetate
Moderate cross Neoprene Oil resistant synthetic

linked with crystalline rubber
domain polyisoprne
Cross linked Phenol T.V and radio cabinet
amorphous structure
formaldehyde Cases ,ash trays
Strengthening mechanism are employed
to make the polymer more rigid, more
resistant to temperature, more resistant
to corrosive materials
Strengthening methods
1. Crystallization
2. Cross-linking
3. Chain-stiffing
Crystallization
Crystallization in a polymer gives a regular

arrangement of molecules in their stricture
.molecules are arranged in regular manner
by using van-der walls force .it is not
temperature depend and can be reversed
by de composition of the polymer.
Crystalline polymer are more strong and
more resistant to dissolution .
Cross-linking
Linear chains are joined one to another by

covalent bonds
It depends upon the chemical reaction
It is strongly accelerated by the temperature
It is not a referable process
Cross linking is done to

increase strength
Reduce plasticity
Chain-stiffing
Chain-stiffing of polymers can be produced
by a number of methods. " hang" is one of
the most common process where the atom
on the chain is restricted from bending .but
they can twist on its bonds .some monomers
have ring shaped group and thus have inherit
rigidity.
S.No Polymer characteristics Example Typical applications
Pipes, thin films, food containers,
Poly ethylene buckets, etc.
.
Fibers, rope, films, households
Some crystallinity, Poly propylene
1 wares, hot water tubing etc.
flexible chains
Pipes toys, electrical conductors,
Poly vinyl chloride
seating, etc,
Low strength Mechanical
Nylon
components, fabrics, stockings etc
Terylene
Crystalline domains Both used for fibers for clothing and
2 (Dalron)
well developed for thin films etc.
Cellulose acetate
Moderate cross linking Neoprene Oil resistant synthetic rubber, high

3
with crystalline domains Polyisoprene resilience synthetic rubber.
Radio and TV cabinets, telephone

Phenol
Cross- linked cases, ash trays etc
4 Formaldehyde
amorphous structure. Toys, buttons, light switches,
Urea formaldehyde
waterproof glues for plywood, etc.
16 CERAMICS
INTRODUCTION:
Ceramics is from the Greek

word KERAMOS, which means burnt stuff. Ceramics
are those containing phases that are compounds of
metallic and non-metallic elements. Earlier the term
ceramics was applied to products made from natural
earth that had been exposed to high temperatures
.Now a days the ceramics have even been used as
lubricants (Molybdenum disulphide) and fuels
(Uranium oxide for nuclear reactors and Boron
hydride for solid propellant rockets). Most of the
ceramic materials are silicates, aluminates, oxides,
carbides, borides, nitrides and hydrides.
16 CERAMICS
CHARACTERISTICS OF CERAMIC MATERIAL
Ceramic materials
are stable at relatively high temperatures.They
are generally hard ,brittle materials that can
withstand compressive load even at high
temperatures. They are chemically inert and
susceptible to thermal shocks.
16 CERAMICS
16.2 STRUCTURE OF CERAMIC MATERIALS:
Most ceramics materials

phases like metals have crystal structures. Ceramic
crystals are formed by either a pure ionic bond (as
in sodium chloride), a pure covalent bond (as in
silicon carbide), or by bonds that process the ionic
as well as covalent characteristics as in SiO2 and
MgO.
The chemical bonds in
ceramics are generally ionic bonds, which make
ceramic materials relatively highly, stable. They are
more resistant to chemical reaction and also posses
high hardness, high melting point and low electrical
conductivity at room temperatures.
The crystal structure of
ceramic materials is invariably more complex as
compared to those of metals. Since atoms of
16 CERAMICS
CLASSIFICATION OF CAERAMIC MATERIALS
They are classified into two different ways.
1. Functional classification indicating particular
industries and industrial applications. The table
below shows groups and examples for function
classification.
16 CERAMICS
2. Structural classification indicating the structural
criteria. The table below shows the group and
examples for structural classification.
16 CERAMICS
ABRASIVES
These are the ceramic materials, which are having uniform
hardness to a greater extent. They may be natural (e.g.
diamond, garnet, flint etc.) or synthetic (e.g. silicon
carbide, aluminium oxide). The types and uses (applications)
of abrasives are as shown in the table.
16 CERAMICS
WHITE WARE
White ware is a product of clay.
White ware becomes white after the high
temperature firing. White ware includes
porcelain,potters ,table ware ,china, sanitary
ware etc.
Porcelain is glazed or unglazed
vitreous ceramic white ware which is used for
technical purposes. Typical porcelain products
are electrical, chemical mechanical,structural and
thermal ware.
Pottery is a generic name for all fire

clay ware. They are soft, non-vitreous and
capable of absorbing more than 3% moisture.
China is glazed or unglazed or vitreous
(hard and non-absorbent) white ware, which is
used for non- technical purposes. The products
16 CERAMICS
GLASS
Glass is an inorganic product of fusion of one or
more oxides of silicon,boron, calcium, magnesium,
sodium, etc. cooled to a rigid material without
crystallization.
Table below shows the types, properties and uses of
S.no. Types
glasses.Properties Uses
Moderate corrosion
1. Soda lime glass resistance, withstands high Windows, bottles
temperature (upto 860F)
Thermal property, corrosion

resistance, co-efficient of
Neon-sign tubing, electric light bulb
2. Lead glasses expansion depends on the
stems.
lead percentage, possess
high electrical resistivity.
Possess resistance to Glass- to-metal sealing purposes,

3. Borosilicate glass
thermal shock. telescopes, mirrors, electric tubes.
Possess resistance to Power tubes, travelling wave tubes,

Aluminosilicate
4. corrosion to thermal shocks, thermometers, stovetop cookware,
glass
good corrosion resistance. combustion tubes.
16 CERAMICS
Possess resistance to
Power tubes, travelling wave tubes,
corrosion to thermal
4. Aluminosilicate glass thermometers, stovetop cookware,
shocks, good corrosion
combustion tubes.
resistance.
Highly transparent,
withstands high Laboratory optical systems, delay lines in
5. Fused silica glasses
temperatures (upto radar installation.
1650F)
Posses high hardness,

Refrigerators, Microwave Ovens, cooking
6. Recrystal glasses impact strength, thermal
dishes,
stability.
7. Foam glasses Light weight
Non flamable, conduct

neither heat nor electric
current, poor conductors
8. Fibre glasses Automobile and aircraft parts.
of sound and chemically
inactive. Possess high
tensile stress.
16 CERAMICS
BRICKS AND TILES
Bricks and tiles are structural clay products, which
are made either by the mud or soft mud process. The
plasticity depends on the amount of water used, as salt
glazing is a commonly used technique in the manufacture of
structural clay products.
The different types of bricks are building brick, facing
brick and paving bricks. The different types of tiles are
hollow tiles, roofing tiles and drain tile.
16 CERAMICS
CEMENTS AND CONCRETES
16.3.5 CEMENTS
Cement is material for bonding

solids together. They may be organic (Rubber cement) or
inorganic (Portland cement). As it is inert towards water is
absolutely irreplaceable all parts and submarine structure,
for construction of dams, for the erection of buildings in
dam places etc. Portland cement is cementing material,
which is used in to days life. This is currently produced
by a partial fusion of a mixture of calcareous and
argillaceous materials such as clay and limestone. And
oxides of silicon, aluminium, iron and often magnesium. A
small amount of gypsum is added to the cement powder to
prevent the cement from taking a flash set when mixed
with water.
16 CERAMICS
CONCRETE
In combination with water, cements
weld together aggregates of crushed stones, gravels and
sand in to a coherent and solid mass called concrete. This
is less expensive and stronger than Portland cement.
Structures made of concrete bases on iron beams and rods
are called reinforced concrete structure.
Water is added to concrete to
produce hydrates and to lubricate the aggregates to make
more workable. If the optimum water cement ratio will
not be followed, then there will be a formation of porosity
which weakens the concrete strength. Asphalt paints or
salts of fatty acids are used to minimize or avoid the
porosity of concrete even when it is made by optimum
water cement ratio. Concrete is widely used to built
vaults, arches, bridges, cisterns tanks, etc.
16 CERAMICS
DIFFERENT TYPES OF CEMENTS
Natural cements, artificial cements,
quick setting cements, rapid hardening cements, sulphate
resisting cements, low heat cement, high alumina cement,
coloured cement, blast furnace slag cement, hydrographic
cement, etc.
16.3.7 REFRACTORIES
Refractors are ceramic materials that can
withstand usually high heat as well as abrasion and the
corrosive effects of acids and the alkaline. They can
withstand high temperatures (550-2150c) without being
fused. They also posses low thermal co-efficient of
expansion, chemically inert, withstands high pressure and
insulating for heat and electric current.
16 CERAMICS
Refractors are grouped into 3 categories.
And they are as shown below.
S.NO. CATEGORY PROPERTY USES
Used for arched

Acid refractors: Withstands high
roofs of steel and
1. E.g. Silica, Alumina, temperatures
glass making
Aluminium silica, Silicate. (1700-1900c)
furnaces.
Withstands high
temperatures Used in steel
Basic refractors:
2. (2800c) and also making open-
E.g. Magnesia
resistance to hearth furnaces.
attack slag.
Withstands high Used in

Neutral refractors:
3. temp construction of
E.g.: chromite, graphite
(2180c-3000c) furnaces.
16 CERAMICS
16.3.8 INSULATORS
Electric insulators are generally ceramic
materials and they prevent the flow of electric current
throw it. They contain only covalent, ionic and or
molecular bonds .An insulator or Dielectric has a specific
resistance in the range of 108to1020 -cm. They have
wide forbidden energy gap between conduction band and
valence band. The bonds in insulated materials can
breakdown under high electrical voltages and conducts, but
usually they break down is a surface phenomenon. They
are glazed to make them non-absorbent. Examples of
insulating materials are: -
(a) Ceramic insulators: - Asbestos, calcium silicate, rock
wool, haydite, vermiculite, fiberglass, perlite, etc.
(b) Plastic insulators: - Porcelain and Mylar.
16 CERAMICS
16.4 PROPERTIES OF CERAMIC MATERIALS
16.4.1 Mechanical properties
(a) Hardness and resistance to wear
Certain ceramics like carborandum and
nitrite have great hardness and resistances to wear which
are very useful for grinding wheels and cutting tools.
Certain ceramic materials having hardness and resistance
to wear are being used for tape recorder (pick-up and
play back) heads.
(b) Tensile strength
Theoretically ceramics possess high
tensile strength but in practice it is quite low. This is
because, of stress concentration due to porosity. Ceramics
generally fail due to this low tensile strength.
(c) Compressive strength
As compared to tensile strength
ceramics possess high compressive strength. For example
compressive strength of alumina ranges from 19500 to
3500 kg/cm. Bricks, cements and glass are always used
in compression rather than in tension.
16 CERAMICS
(d) Transverse strength
Transverse strength is difficult to
ascertain in ceramic materials. Therefore these materials
are not used where transverse strength is an important
criterion. Transverse strength of alumina is 3500kg/cm2.
(e) Fracture strength:
Ceramic materials do face impact
loading under certain conditions. Impact value of
stoneware is 1.1-1.3N-m and for vitrified ware 0.7-
1.2N-m.
(f) Torsion strength:
It is seldom considered as a critical
property of ceramics since tensile and cantilever
requirements will show the torsional strength of the
material.
(g) Shear strength: -
High shear strength and low fracture are
general characters of ceramic material with the exception
of a few materials such as clay. Thus they commonly fail
non-ductility i.e. in a brittle manner or fracture.
16 CERAMICS
(h) Modulus of elasticity:
The value of modulus of elasticity for
ceramic material ranges from 7x 1010 to 40x1010 N/m2.
(i) Plastic deformation:
The ceramic material does not permit
plastic deformation since they have greater resistance to
slip (Resistance to slip is more than that in metals).
16 CERAMICS
16.4.2 ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES
Electrical properties of ceramics depend on the
composition, texture, density, size, temperature and time.
(a) Electrical insulation: -

Ceramic materials are used in electric circuit both as
electrical insulators and as its functional parts. Porcelain,
Steatite, forsterite, and alumina are often used as electrical
insulators.
(b) Di-electric property: -
The Di-electric is an other name for insulator
because material separating two charged bodies is known as Di-
electric. Ceramic material has good Di-electric capacity and that
is why they are used as cores in transformers, and Di-electric
medium in condensers. Glass, porcelain, alumina, quartz, mica
good Di-electric materials.
(c) Electrical conductivity: -
Ceramics are practically non-conductors at lower
temperature, particularly in cold conduction since they do not
possess movement of free electron at this temperature. But some
ceramics such as Iron oxide, Nickel, Cobalt oxide and Barium
titanate conduct electricity quite well at room temperature which
constitute a very special class of semi-conductors (N.T.C&P.T.C
16 CERAMICS
16.4.3 THERMAL PROPERTIES:
Ceramics possess favorable thermal properties at
high temperature and under oxidizing condition.
Thermal capacity:
The specific heat of fire clay bricks is 0.25 at
1000C and 0.297 at 1400C. Carbon bricks have specific heat of
about 0.812 at 200C and 0.412 at 1000 C.
Thermal conductivity:
Since there are no enough free electrons, the heat
is conducted by Phonon conductivity and the interaction of the
lattice vibration while at high temperature conduction takes place
by the transfer of radiant energy. Thermal conductivity
decreases with impurity and porosity.
Thermal shock:
Ceramics have better thermal shock resistance
property. Lithium compounds are used in ceramics to reduce the
thermal expansion and to provide excellent thermal shock
resistance. Common ceramic materials graded in order of
decreasing thermal shock resistance are hot pressed silicon
nitride, fused silica, cordierite, zircon, silicon carbide, berylliea,
alumina, porcelain and stearite.
16 CERAMICS
Applications of Ceramic Materials
The application of ceramic materials in the aerospace
industries includes the use of alumina ceramics for missile
and rocket nose cones. Silicon carbide or molybdenum di-
silicide for rocket nozzles etc.
Enriched uranium-di-oxide is used as the fuel element in
nuclear power generation plant.
Laser material (part of ceramics) are used for machining,
welding, cutting etc.
Piezo electric materials such as barium titanite and leas
zirconate-titanate are used in photograph, cartridges and
ultra sonic devices.
17.0 SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS
17.0 Introduction
All materials can be classified into three
groups, conductors, insulators, and semiconductors. In
conductors the conduction and valance band are over
laps and the electron will not find any obstruction to
flow from one level to another level to cause
conduction. In insulators the energy gap is more and
ionic and covalent bonds tightly hold the atoms
together. The probability of breaking this bond is very
small. Hence there no free electron to conduct.
Generally the materials having more than three
electron volts of energy gap are known as Insulators.
Roughly the conduction possibility in insulator is 1012
times less than in case of good conductors. There is a
group of materials in which the energy gap (2-3eV)
between the filled and unfilled zones is sufficiently
small so that the electrons may be exited by thermal
energy to move from the filled zone to empty zone.
At absolute zero temperature the semiconductor will
act as an insulator.
17.1 Semiconductor materials:

A semiconductor material is one whose
electrical properties lie between those of insulators
and good conductors. E.g. Germanium and Silicon.
Valence band:
The electrons occupying the outer most orbit
or shell of an atom are called valence electrons. The
band occupied by this electron is called valance band.
Conduction band:
The electrons, which have left the valance
band, are called as conduction electrons. The band
occupied by this electron is called conduction band.
Energy band:
The energy in an energy level of an isolated
atom is called energy band. In terms of energy band,
at room temp the semiconductor are classified as
Partially filled conduction band.
Partially filled valance band.
A very narrow energy gap (1 ev) between conduction
and valance band.
At absolute zero temperature there are no electrons in
the conduction band of semiconductors and their
valance band is completely filled. It means that at
absolute zero temperature the semiconductor acts as
an insulator. As the temp increases the semiconductor
looses its insulating property and consequently gains
conductivity. Semiconductors have negative temp
coefficient of resistance.
Typical resistivities are of the following order.
Conductors =10-8ohm-m.
Semiconductors =103ohm-m
Insulators = 1012ohm-m.
17.2 Bonding in semiconductors

It has been observed that the
semiconductors like Ge and Si have a crystalline
structure. Both these materials are tetravalent i.e.
they have 4 valance electrons. In order to acquire a
stable electronic configuration, each atom shares its 4
electrons with 4 neighboring atoms and forms a
covalent bond. The cross section of a Ge crystal
lattice is shown in fig. The circles represent the atom
cores. These cores consist of nuclei and the inner 28
electrons. The pair of line represents a covalent bond
and a dot represents the valance electrons.
Electronic property: The study of electrical and magnetic

properties of the materials is called the electronic
property.
Electrical conductivity: Electrical conductivity the
reciprocal of resistivity of the material. This term
describes the movement of electrical charges from one
point to another point.
i.e. =j /e =ne
Where n= number of electrons
e= Charge of electrons
= Mobility (drift velocity acquired by the electron on
application of unit electric field).
Conductivity of semiconductors:
Conductivity of metals depends upon the
presence of free electron in a crystal due to the
metallic bond. In case of semiconductor the
conductivity is due to charge carriers, which depends
on many factors by purity of the semiconductor,
temperature etc. The semiconductors can be classified
as intrinsic and extrinsic (impurity or doped). The
doped semiconductor can be further sub divided into
two categories as electron or N-type and hole or P-
type semiconductor.
17.4.1 Intrinsic semiconductor:

These are extremely pure. At temp close to
absolute zero, the atoms of the crystal are covalent
bonded and application of field does not cause any
directional motion of the electrons. As the temp
increases some of the electrons attain kinetic energy
greater than the binding energy for the covalent bond.
These electrons rupture and escape into the
interstices of the lattice and become free. These
electrons move freely giving rise to conduction.
Each electron, which moves into the interstitial space,

becomes a conduction electron. Each electron, which
moves out of the bond, leaves a vacancy or hole. An
electron from the neighboring bond, thus creating the
hole there occupies this vacancy. In this way a hole
moves in the direction opposite to that of electron.
Since each hole is an electron deficiency, it ascribes a
+ charge. Thus in an intrinsic semiconductor the
number of holes is equal to the number of electrons
17.4.2 Extrinsic semiconductors:

These are also called as impurity or doped
semiconductors. Conduction due to the electrons or
holes of impurity atoms added to the semiconductor is
known as extrinsic semiconductor. Impurity atoms have
great influence on the electric conductivity of
semiconductor materials.
There are two types of

impurities which when added to the Germanium and
silicon as a conductor matrix produces excess of
electrons or holes. These are n type and p type
semiconductors.
N-type crystals:
The four valance electrons of Ge and Si (belongs to iv
group in periodic table) contribute to four co-valent bonds
with the four nearest neighbors. When a pentavelant
impurity such as an atom is added to tetravalent (Ge)
matrix, only four of the five electrons of arsenic (As)
participate in the co-valent bond formation with the four
neighbors. The fifth electron does not participate in co-
valent bond formation. Its bondage to the nucleus is also
weak and because of high di-electric constant of Ge and
energy of the bonding is some 250 times less.
At slightly elevated temperature the fifth electron gets
detached. The semiconductor acquires the conductivity
due to the free electrons. Since these electrons were not
participating in the bond formation the positive ions do
not behave as holes. These ions will not contribute for
conduction and they will simply fix to the lattice (since
the electron conductivity is the dominant factor for the
conduction in a crystal with the pentavalent impurity.
Such crystal is called N type crystal. Hence we can
At elevated temperature the intrinsic electrons and holes

of the matrix also contributes the conduction. The
charge carriers whose concentration dominates the
conduction process are called majority carriers and
the charge carries of the opposite sign are called
minority carriers.
P-type crystals:
This type of semiconductor is formed by
adding a trivalent impurity like gallium, indium (having
three valence electron). When indium is added to Ge,
the indium atom lacks one electron to form four co-
valent bonds with four Ge neighbor.
The resultant vacancy in the four bonds
represents a hole. The trivalent impurities make
available positive carrier or holes that can accept
electron. These impurities are called acceptors. In the
P-type semiconductor the predominant conduction is
due to holes. As the temp increases an electron from
the neighboring Ge-Ge co-valent bond goes and fills
this vacancy. Thus making a negative indium ion
bonded to the system with a hole in the Ge matrix.
For energy band diagram refer fig.
17.5 Factors affecting the electrical

conductivity
Temperature:
Structure disorders increases with increase of temp
causing scattering of electrons. This result in low
conductivity. Except at room temp, the resistively
varies linearly with temp and the relationship is given
as below
t=20 [1+ (t-20)]
Where t - is the resistivity at t0 c
20 - is resistivity at 20C
- is temp coefficient of resistivity per degree
centigrade.
Impurities:
They cause drastic changes in resistivity. Local field
around the solute atom is different from that present
in the remaining portion of a material. This local fields
cause scattering of electrons and hence reduces
conductivity. The dependence of the resistivity on
single impurity is given by Nordium rule t=Ax (1-x)
where x is concentration. A is constant which depends
on the base metal and the impurity.
Plastic deformation:
Imperfection in crystals like vacancies, dislocation,
grain boundary, etc, give raise to scattering of
electrons. Both resistivity and strain hardness depends
on the number of dislocations present. That is way
the resistivity (s) is high in cold work metal and
annealing can reduce this, which removes
imperfections.
Total resistivity ==t +x+s=t+0
(0=x+s)
o=residual resistivity
Magnetic proprieties:
Some materials are magnetic in nature while others
are not. Magnetic materials are involved in partially
all-electrical apparatus starting form electromagnets,
transformers, etc. It is essential to understand the
differences between the various types of magnetic
materials in terms of the magnetic properties of
atoms and interaction between them.
Magnetism:
It is due to the motion of charges. The
magnetic properties of the substances depend upon
the presence of dipole moments. A charged particle
having an angular momentum contributes to the dipole
moment. There are three contributions to the angular
momentum of an atom.
Orbital angular momentum of an electron.
Electrons spin angular momentum.
Nucleus spin angular momentum
The total magnetic dipole moment of an atom is

sum of the dipole moment due to each of the above
forms of angular momentum.
The orbital angular momentum gives rise to induced dipole
moment, which has a direction opposite to the applied
magnetic field. Major observable magnetic behavior of
an atom is due to the electrons spin. Orbital angular
momentum of an electron and electron spin angular
momentum gives rise to para magnetism and the
Magnetization (M):
It is defined as the magnetic moment per unit
volume. The magnetic susceptibility per unit volume is
defined as
Sl.no X=0M/B
Super conductor material Magnetic filed (H0) in A/M at 0k Transition temperature Tc in
(multiply by 79.6) zero field k
1 Al 106 1.2
2 Hg 413 4.2
3 Nb 2000 9.2
4 Sn 305 3.7
5 Ti 20 0.4
6 V 1310 5.0
7 Nb3Sn 5000 18.1
8 V3Si 17.1
9 NbN 16.0
10 MoC 8.0
11 CuS 1.6
Where 0= Permeability of free space, B= macroscopic magnetic intensity,

X= dimensionless. Diamagnetic substances have negative susceptibility and
Para magnetic have positive susceptibility.
LIST OF DIFFERENT SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS
FORBIDEN
SL. CHEMICALS
ELEMENTS ENERGY GAP APPLICATION
NO SYMBOLS
IN ev
1 Indium antimonide InSb 0.18 Infrared detectors
2 Lead telluride Pb Te 0.33 -do-
3 Lead sulphide PbS 0.37 -do-
4 Germanium Ge 0.72 P-N junction devices
5 Silicon Si 1.1 -do-
6 Gallium arsenide GaAs 1.34 Tunnel diodes
7 Cadmium telluride CdTe 1.45 Photocells
8 Cadmium sulphide CdS 2.45 -do-

P-type crystals:
This type of semiconductor is formed by
adding a trivalent impurity like gallium, indium (having
three valence electron). When indium is added to Ge,
the indium atom lacks one electron to form four co-
valent bonds with four Ge neighbor.
The resultant vacancy in the four bonds
represents a hole. The trivalent impurities make
available positive carrier or holes that can accept
electron. These impurities are called acceptors. In the
P-type semiconductor the predominant conduction is
due to holes. As the temp increases an electron from
the neighboring Ge-Ge co-valent bond goes and fills
this vacancy. Thus making a negative indium ion
bonded to the system with a hole in the Ge matrix.
For energy band diagram refer fig.
17.6 Super conducting materials:

Certain metals and large number of
inter metallic compounds exhibits zero resistivity and
undetectable magnetic permeability when they are
cooled below a critical transition temp which nearer to
absolute
zero temp. This property refers to as super conductivity
and electrical materials are then known as super
conductor.
Thermal magnetic properties:
The characteristics
temp at which a substance becomes super conductive
depends on the strength of the magnetic field,
whether the field is applied externally or is the result
of current and the position of the super conductor in
the periodic table. It has been found at metals having
low conductivitys at room temp and metals with 3.5 or
7 valance electrons show super conductivity. These
generalizations have lead to the formulation of many
intermetallic compounds. So far 24 of the metallic

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Cast iron is pig iron remelted and there by

refined in a cupola is other form of remelting

Cast iron is manufactured from Cupola furnace. A Cupola

The bottom doors are closed and a sand bed is formed on

This air rising upwards through the stack furnishes

Liquid slag will continue to flow until the iron level

Carbon in cast iron is found in two forms:

Composition: Carbon 0.02 to 0.03%, Phosphorus 0.05 to

Wrought iron is never cast. All shaping is accomplished

It is noted for its high ductility and the ease with

It is noted for its high ductility and the ease with

Steel is a fundamentally an alloy of iron and carbon,

1.Low Carbon Steel

Dead mild steel used in making steel wires, sheets, rivets,

Properties: - They are hard, wear resistant, brittle, difficult to

used in cold chisels, wrenches shear blades, hack

10.3 ALLOY STEEL

Given below is the composition of typical alloy steel.

C 0.2 - 0.4% Mn 0.5 -1.0%

Some of the prominent Alloy Steels

The steel should not be used when the tool

SHOCK RESISTING STEELS

They are safer to harden and have less dimensional

Even though the characteristics of both are almost

11.5 INFLUENCE OF ALLOYING ELEMENTS

It is clear that no group has all the requisites. The

11.6 SPECIFICATION OF STEELS

BHLER Chemical Analysis (%) Standards Stock Programme

EN / DIN AISI BS UNI

EN / DIN AISI BS UNI

EN / DIN AISI BS UNI

EN / DIN AISI BS UNI

2.00 0.25 0.30 11.50

EN / DIN AISI BS UNI

UNE AFNOR JIS GOST

EN / DIN AISI BS UNI

EN / DIN AISI BS UNI

EN / DIN AISI BS UNI

EN / DIN AISI BS UNI AFNOR

Hardness after annealing : Max 220 HB

EN / DIN AISI BS UNI

EN / DIN AISI BS UNI

Beryllium Bronzes- contain beryllium 2%

1) It possesses good corrosion and oxidation resistance.

Before commencing the test two gauge marks are made on

1.Saturated organic compounds

Natural organic materials:- They include

A repeated unit of Polyethylene ( - CH2- CH2 - ) is

It is the number of repetitive units present

Molecular weight of polymer

Thermo set plastics:-

Natural polymers:-This include

Polymerization is nothing but forming of polymer. in this

Monomers should also have two ore more

There are two type of polymerization,

It is a polymerization process, where the polymers has

Ethylene+ Ethylene polyethylene

Vinyl chloride + Vinyl chloride poly Vinyl chloride (PVC)

Co- polymerization is another kind of addition polymerization in which

Vinyl chloride + Vinyl acetate Co-polymer

Depending upon the monomer. The kind of polymer

The process requires suitable conditions such as high-

HC-OH + H C C OH H -C-O-C-C-H +H2O

Methyl alcohol + Acetic acid Easter (polymer) +water