Lecture 9

The Flight Environment

Airports
Chapter 4 (B,C), Jeppesen Sanderson
Chapters 15, Kroes and Rardon

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 Airport
Airport Visual Aids
Runway markings
Taxiway markings
Airport Signs
Airport Lighting
Airport Beacon
Visual glideslope indicators
Runway edge lights
Taxiway lighting
Obstruction lighting
Aeronautical Charts 2
 Airport Visual Aids

Runway markings
Runways with precision approaches and with
non-precision approaches
Displaced threshold
Blast pad / stopway
NOTAM

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 Runway Markings (1)
Runway markings vary between runways
used only for VFR and those that can be
used both for VFR and IFR.
A runway used for VFR alone usually is
marked with only the runway number and
the dashed white centerline.
A runway that can be used for IFR has
markings that allows pilots to navigate to the
runway using only the flight instruments
In this lecture we focus on runways that can
be used both for IFR and VFR.
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 Runway Markings (2)
Precision & Nonprecision Approaches
Runways for IFR can have two types of
approach guidance - those using electronic
glide slope to guide landing are said to use
precision approaches.
IFR runways that do not have electronic
glideslope are said to use nonprecision
approaches. IFR runways with nonprecision
approaches also have somewhat different
runway markings from those for precision
approaches. 5
 Runway Markings (3)
Precision & Nonprecision Approaches
A runway using nonprecision instrument
approach has a threshold and aiming point
markings.
In addition to the threshold and aiming point
markings, precision approach runways also
include touchdown zone markings. (Fig 4-17)

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Visual, Precision & Nonprecision runways (4-17)

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 Runway Markings (4)
Displaced Threshold
Sometimes a runway might be obstructed
by buildings or other objects near the end.
In such case the initial part cannot be
used for landing and the threshold is
displaced forward and a solid white line is
added as the beginning of the threshold.
Landing has to be done starting or beyond
the threshold.
The initial part is marked with white
arrows. It cannot be used for landing but
can be used for taxiing, takeoff, and as
landing rollout. (Fig 4-18) 8
Displaced Threshold (4-18)

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 Runway Markings (4)
Blast Pad / stopway
A blast pad / stopway looks similar to the
initial part preceding a displaced threshold,
except that the markings are yellow
inverted-Vs instead of white arrows.
However it cannot be used for takeoff or
even for taxiing.
The area can only be used for
decelerating after an aborted takeoff or an
abnormal landing from the other side. In
this area jet blast dissipation will not
affect others. (Fig 4-19)
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Blast Pad / stopway (4-19)

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 NOTAM
If a runway has to be closed unexpectedly
and there is not enough time to publish
the information on standard operational
publications, a Notice to Airmen (NOTAM)
may be issued to pilots about the closure.
Also, NOTAMs can include changes in the
status of navigational aids or instrument
approach facilities, radar service
availability, or other information ensential
for landing operations.
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 Airport Visual Aids

Taxiway markings
Taxiway marks
Ramp area hand signals

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 Taxiway Markings
The links between the runway and the
parking areas for airplanes are the
taxiways.
A taxiway can easily be identified with its
continuous yellow centerline.
In some airports, edge marking are added
to separate the taxiway from pavements
that are not for airplane driving.
When a taxiway intersects a runway a
hold line is drawn to prevent airplanes
from wrongly entering the runway. (4-21)14
Taxiway marking and Hold Line (4-21)

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 Ramp Area
The area where airplanes park are called
the apron or ramp area.
Airport terminals and maintenance
facilities are often located near the ramp
area.
Standard hand signals are used by ramp
personnel for directing pilots during
airplane ground movements and ground
operations (called Fix Base Operations or
FBOs). (Fig 4-23) 16
Standard Hand Signals (4-23)

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 Airport Visual Aids

Taxiway markings
Taxiway marks
Ramp area hand signals

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 Airport Signs
The International Civil Aviation
Organization (ICAO) is a United Nations
Agency that develop standard airport
signs.
The standard specification of these signs
include their size, height, where the signs
should be put, and their illumination.
There are six basic types of airport signs.
(Fig 4-24)
Some example of sign use is in Fig 4-25.19
Airport Signs (4-24)

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Example of airport sign usage (4-25)

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 Airport Lighting

Airport Beacon
Visual Glideslope Indicators
Runway Edge Lights
In-Runway Light
Taxiway Lighting
Obstruction Lighting

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 Airport Beacon
Lights which might have different colors
and might change with time that are
specifically used to guide pilots flying to
airports in the dark are called airport
beacons. (Fig 4-27)
These beacons are most noticeable from
one to ten degrees above the horizon.
(Remember that standard landing is at 3)

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Airport Beacon (4-27)

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 Visual Glideslope Indicators (1)
Visual glideslope indicators are light
systems to let you know your position in
relation to the desired glide path in
landing to the runway.
They are located on the side of the
runway and can be used both during the
day and at night.
One typical type is the visual approach
slope indicator (VASI).
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 Visual Glideslope Indicators (2)
VASI may have either 2 or 3 bars (rows)
of lights.
A 2-bar system has one near and one far
bar. Each bar can contain 2, 4 or 12 light
units.
If both bars show white lights, you are too
high for your landing.
If both bars show red, you are too low.
If the far bar is red and the near bar is
white you are just right. (Fig 4-28)
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2-Bar VASI (4-28)

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 Visual Glideslope Indicators (4) -
Tri-color VASI
Tri-color VASI uses a single light unit that
projects a three-color visual path.
If while descending you see an amber
light you are too high.
If you see a green light you are right on
the glide path.
If you see red you are too low for correct
landing. (Fig 4-29)

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Tri-color VASI (4-29)

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 Visual Glideslope Indicators (5) - PAPI
Some airport uses the precision approach
path indicator (PAPI) which uses 2 or 4
lights in a row (instead of the two lights
used in a VASI) and is put on the left side
of the runway.
In a 4-light system if all lights are white
you are too high.
If there are 3 white light and one red you
are slightly high.
If there are 2 white lights and 2 red ones
you are just right. (and so on) (Fig 4-30)
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The PAPI (4-30)

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 Runway Edge Lights (1)
Runway edge lights consists a row of
lights on each side of the runway, plus
lights identifying the runway threshold.
At some airports the pilot can adjust the
intensity of these runway lights from the
cockpit using the radio transmitter.
Some runway edge lights incorporates
yellow runway remaining lights on the
last half of the runway (or the last 2000
feet of the runway, whichever is less).32
 Runway Edge Lights (2)
In some runways the threshold lights might be
replaced with a row of green lights across the
beginning of the runway.
These green lights are actually two-ways.
When viewed from the other side of the runway
(for planes taking off or landing from the
opposite direction) they are red in color,
indicating the end of the runway from that
direction.
Sometimes high intensity strobe lights are
placed on each side of the runway at the
threshold and can be used together with the
green threshold lights.
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 In-Runway Lighting (1)
Some precision approach runways have
flush-mounted (level with the ground)
lightings for the runway centerline, the
touchdown zone, and taxiway turnoff area.
The runway centerline lighting system
(RCLS) is white until the last 3000 feet.
From the 3000 to 1000-foot point, the
lights are alternating between red and
white. In the last 1000 feet the lights are
all red. The pilot thus knows about how
much runway is left for used. 34
 In-Runway Lighting (2)
Touchdown zone lighting (TDZL) consists
of two rows of transverse light bars on
either side of the runway centerline
starting at 100 feet from the threshold
and extends to 3000 feet (or extends over
half the length of the runway, whichever
is less).

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 Taxiway Lighting
Taxiways are lined with blue lights on both
sides to guide the pilot on the taxiway
from the runway to the ramp area.
At some airports taxiways are also
installed with green centerline lights in
addition to the blue lights on the edges.

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 Obstruction Lighting
Obstruction lighting is used both on and
off the airport, during day and night.
They are used to warn pilots of large
structures such as towers, buildings, and
sometimes even powerlines.
Bright red and high intensity white lights
are typically used, and sometimes flashing
lights are employed.
Fig 4-23 displays different runway, taxiway,
and obstruction lightings.
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Summary of typical large airport lightings (4-32)

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 Aeronautical Charts

Latitude and Longitude

Projections

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 Latitude and Longitude (1)
A pilot has to know the earth in detail
while planning the flight or during flying
to get to the destination.
He/she depends on aeronautical charts
(detailed maps) for these purposes.
Between the north pole and the south
pole, the earth is divided into horizontal
parallel lines called latitudes.
The largest circle is the equator which is
mid-way between the two poles and is
labeled as 0latitude. 40
 Latitude and Longitude (2)
The parallel circular lines north from the
equator are numbered from 0to 90,
with 90north latitude being at the north
pole.
Similarly, the parallel latitude lines south
of the equator are also numbered from
0to 90, with 90south latitude being at
the south pole.

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 Latitude and Longitude (3)
Vertical imaginary lines joining the north
and the south pole are called longitudes.
The longitude that passes Greenwich,
England is labeled 0longitude (called the
Prime Meridian).
The hemisphere east of Greenwich is
divided into 180of longitude, and the
hemisphere west of Greenwich is similarly
divided into 180.
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 Aeronautical Chart
The lines of latitude and longitude are
printed on an aeronautical chart.
Each degree in latitude and longitude is
sub-divided into 60 parts called minutes.
Thus the earth is divided into 360x60 or
21,600 parts both on the east-west
direction and on the north-south direction
on an aeronautical chart. (Fig 4-34)

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Latitude and Longitude on Aeronautical Chart (4-34

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 Projections (1)
When printing the aeronautical chart the
3-dimensional earth has to be projected
into a 2-dimensional map.
In our everyday wall map, both the
latitudes and longitudes are projected as
parallel straight lines onto the map.
However in such projection the distances
are greatly distorted as a very short
distance near the poles that crosses 30
longitudes will appear much longer on the
map. 45
Wall map projection (4-35)

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 Projections (2)
To minimize the distortion problem
aeronautical charts uses a different way of
projection called Lambert Conformal Conic
projection. (Fig 4-36)
Aeronautical charts for VFR often show
more details of the earth than those used
for IFR.

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Conic projection for aeronautic charts (4-36)

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