Theories and Approaches

The Classical Approaches-Realism and

Liberalism.
The Scientific Revolution- Behavioural
Approach, System Approach.
Post-modernism, Constructivism,
International society, Feminism.
 Key Concepts

What is Theory?
Theory is speculation/guess about what had
happened and how to explain what happens.
It is an idea, that attempts to Observe,
describe, and predict in any field of inquiry.
Examples Chinese rise will be countered
Indian Rise has consequences
 Anarchy
Literal meaning is absence of government
synonymous to disorder, and chaos.

In its formal sense, it designate the lack of a

central authority killing of Mulla Mansoor..??

It is a feature of int. system in which IR occurs.

Security Dilemma
Steps taken to enhance the security of one state
decreases the security of the other state.

Power (ability to influence)

Military strength, Population, Size, Territory,
Strategic location, Source Endowment, Economic
Capability, political stability, technological
advancement, skilled human resource, etc.
 Balance of Power
An even distribution of power.
The equilibrium of the power among states in
such a way that no state has dominance over
other.
Why do we need theories in study of IR?
It attempts to provide a conceptual framework
upon which IR can be analysed.
IR theories act as pair of sun glasses that allow
where to see anything relevant to the theory.
Absolute Gains
Assessing the total effects of a decision on the
state and acting accordingly.

Relative Gains
However, states are also concerned with how
much power and influence other states might
achieve.
Part As win is party Bs loss
 Realism
Its roots can be traced to the E.H. Carrs
twenty years crisis 1939, Morgenthaus
Politics among Nations 1948.

After WWI idealists emerged with the notion of

collective security.

But, Idealists attracted criticism from the realists

especially by E. H. Carr.
Realism is the dominant theory of IR.
It has ancient roots in the writings of
Thucydides, Machiavelli, Hobbes, and Hans
Morgenthau.
Early realism can be characterized as the
reaction against the inter-war (1919-1939)
idealists thinking.
The outbreak of WWII exposed the
deficiencies in idealism.
Realism Defined;

A theory based on the principle that world

politics is a struggle among self-interested states
for power and position under anarchy, with
each competing state pursuing its own national
interests.

Realists claim International System is anarchic.

 Realism defined;
Realists believe that goal of power, the means
of power and the uses of power are crucial for
politics.

Int. Politics is power politics: where A state has

to defend its national interest to ensure
survival.

National Security and State Survival drive

realist doctrine and realist Foreign Policy.
 Basic Assumptions of Realism
A pessimistic view of human nature.
A belief that IR are necessarily conflictual and
conflicts are resolved by war.
Focuses on national security, statism, self-help,
survival.
States are main actors, in competition with
one another.
Int. system is anarchic and conflict-prone
where relative gains can be made in zero-sum
situations. (Kashmir b/w Ind. Pak).
States must acquire power to survive,
gather resources; military and economic
capability.
Int. politics more important than
domestic politics.
Realism values Relative over Absolute
Gains.
Human are obsessed about their own
well-being.
They love to dominate, hate to be
dominated by others.
States struggle for security and
domination.
Morgenthau, views men and women
power hungry.
Politics is struggle for power over others.
Essentials of Realism (3 S)
Statism
State are unit of analysis (indiv. less
important)
Sovereignty is necessary feature.
State is bound to use force when necessary
for the security.
With out state nothing can be
accomplished.
Power cannot be exercised in a vacuum.
 Survival

Survival is pre-condition to other objectives.

Defensive realist Waltz, believes states
should go for security as principle interest to
ensure survival.
Offensive realist Mearsheimer, says states
must go for maximum power to secure
survival and hegemony.
 Self Help
In int. system no state can be relied upon for
the security. (1971 .. US Fleet)

Military preparedness of one country creates

insecurities in the minds of other states, though
defensive in nature.

States finds it difficult to trust others.

 Classical Realism
Explanation of IR as the result of Human Nature.
Its a thought of four outstanding realists of the
past;
Thucydides (395-460 BC)

Naturalist in character, - man is a political

animal.
States as animals - animals are not same in size
and power.

They strive for power and have will to dominate.

 Machiavelli (1469-1527)
Power (the Lion) and deception (the Fox) are the two
essential means for FP.
Ruler should seek advantage and defend its interests
to ensure survival.
Ruler must be a lion, cunning, and Ruthless.
Ruler must not act according to Christian ethics;
Love your neighbour, be peaceful and avoid war,
be charitable, etc.
 Hobbes (1588-1979)
He refers to pre civil condition as state of nature.
Human circumstances is in permanent state of
war of every man against every man. War of all
against all.
Morgenthau (1904-1980)
Men and women are borne to pursue power.
They have Lust for Power.
This lust brings them into conflict with each other.
 Neorealism
Its the structure of the international System that
influence the behaviour of the of the states based on
global hierarchy defined by primarily distribution of
power.

Advanced by Kenneth Waltz -1979.

Highlights relative distribution of power. (UK VS
Kuwait)
States are primary actors in the system and conscious
about the balance of power.
structure compels states to act in a certain
way, structure determine actions. (WoT and
Pakistans inclusion)
Int. system is anarchic.
All states do the same job; collecting tax and
giving facilities to its citizens.
But, they differ in their varying degree of
capabilities, e.g. US and Nepalare they
equal??
Great powers rise and fall and balance shifts
accordingly. (USSRs demise, from Bipolar to
Unipolar)
Waltz says - formally all states are equal; but,
through power, powerful state make weak state
obey.
Security competition, inter-state rivalry in the
absence of overarching authority (anarchy).
Vicious cycle
1
Anarchic
Structure

2
4 Internation
B.O.P Security
al System Dilemma

3
Power
Maximiz
ation
 Offensive Realism
Great powers always search for
opportunities to gain power - hegemony as
their final goal.
John Mearsheimer - argues that states seek
regional hegemony.
Monroe Doctrine 1823.???
Hegemon states try hard to prevent the rise
of other competitor in order to stay firm in its
area of influence. (US V/S China)
 1. US confronted Imperial Germany in WWI
2. Nazi Germany and Imperial Japan in WWII
3. Soviet Union during Cold-War.
If any of these power had gained hegemony
in Europe it would be free to intervene in US
area of influence.
By this theory US will counter the rise of China
in Asia..??
 Defensive Realism
Kenneth Waltz - believes that state must seek
power in order to be secure and survive.
But excessive power accumulation is
counterproductive.
It provokes hostile alliances by other states - that
bring you on your knees.
Therefore, it is foolish to strive for excessive power
beyond that which is necessary for security and
survival.
 Liberalism
An optimistic approach to global politics
based on;
1. The perfectibility of humankind.
2. Free trade, and democracy.
3. Focuses on individuals rather than states.
Idealism/utopianism a term coined by
realists to ridicule liberals who believe in the
importance of international law, morality,
and international institutions.
Liberals Assumptions and Liberal Strands
Assumptions
Positive view of human nature.
belief that human nature can be cooperative
Belief in progress.
Types of Liberal
Sociological Liberals
Highlights transnational non-governmental ties
among societies, individual and groups.
Interdependence Liberals
Pay particular attention to economic ties of mutual
exchange and dependence between people and
governments.
Institutional Liberals
Underscore the importance of organized cooperation
between states. NATO, EU, SCO etc.
Republican Liberals
Argue that liberal democratic institutions and forms of
government are of vital importance for peaceful
cooperative relations among states
 David Baldwins four Variants of Liberalism.
Commercial Liberals
Advocate free trade and capitalist economy, the way
towards peace and prosperity. Promoted by MNCs.
Republican Liberals
Democratic states are more inclined to respect the
rights of their citizens and are less likely to go to war
with democratic neighbours.
Republican and commercial liberalism combined form
the FP of many major powers.
Sociological Liberals
As transnational activities increase, people are
linked and they become interdependent.
It becomes more difficult for states to act
unilaterally.
Neo-liberal institutionalism
This believes that independent states are
required to have peace and prosperity so
they can pool their resources together. (EU)
Neo-Liberalism

School of liberals that believe in the critical role of

international institutions in promoting global change,
cooperation, peace and prosperity through
collective programs.
 Roots of Liberalism

John Lock in 17th century saw great potential for

Human progress, Civil society, Capitalist economy

Liberal revolution was facilitated by industrial revolution,

use of reason, and logic in socio-political affairs.

Liberals have positive views, have faith in reason, and

favour rational principles in Int. politics.
Also believe - individuals share interests and
engage in cooperation domestically and
internationally.
When people employ reason & logic they can
achieve mutual benefits.
Progress is core belief of Liberalism
Early Liberals (1920-30) were idealists, therefore
they created (LON) etc.
WWII muted this optimism.
Yet another surge came in 1945 (UNO)
Again Cold-War ended this optimism.
Another tide of resurgence observed with the
demise of USSR and end of cold-war - universal
victory of liberal democracy.
9/11, 7/7, Madrid Attack was set back for
liberal optimism.
The Scientific Revolution- Behavioural
Approach and System Approach
 Behaviouralist approach
Taking place in the 1960s, this was essentially a
methodological debate with the Behaviouralist belief
that natural science method should be used in IR.
Natural Sciences + Social Sciences
Behaviourist believed that the field was too
dominated by historians, who they labelled
Traditionalists.
The debate was sparked because of fears amongst
IR community that their field of study was losing its
battle to acquire the status of a science.
 What is related to modernism?
Pre-modernism (Beginnings up to 1650's)

In pre-modern times it was believed that

Ultimate Truth or knowledge is one that is
revealed from God.

Sources of authority. The church, being the

holders and interpreters of revealed
knowledge.
 Modernism (1650-1950's)

1 - Empiricism - knowing through the senses.

2 Through reason or logic.

Sources of authority. As the shift in power

moved away from the church to politicians,
philosophers, scholars etc.
 Post-modernism (1950's to current times)

Post-modernism brought with it a questioning

of the previous approaches to knowing.

They advocate for an pluralistic approach

utilizes multiple ways of knowing.

Revelation + science & reason + intuition,

spiritualism
 Defining Post-modernism

Jean Francois Lyotard - Scepticism towards

meta-narratives
meta-narratives means any theory that has
clear foundation.
Post-modernism is essentially concerned with
deconstructing and distrusting any account of
human life that claims to have direct access to
the truth class activity Ideology of Pakistan
This approach questions knowledge claims,
and focused on exposing the linkages between
knowledge creation and power.

This is a concern that reflects the work of the

postmodernist philosopher Foucault, who
discussed the way in which power and
knowledge create each other.
 Its significance in relation to IR

At the core of postmodernist thinking is a belief

that the
person studying international relations cannot be
impartial from other ideas and knowledge.
Post-modernists claim that neutrality can never
be attained.
Things like the social class, race and ethnicity,
gender and nationality of the author all impact in
some way on how knowledge is created.
 Social Constructivism
Ideas define international structure, how structure
shapes identities, interests, and foreign policy of states
and non-state actors, and how state actors and states
reshapes the structure.
Constructivism on reality
Reality does not exist independently.
Reality is constructed. (Iraq WMDs, Taliban
from Mujahedeen to Terrorist).
 Logic of Anarchy
Anarchy is what states make of it. Alexander Wendt

Constructivism
Anarchy is an effect of practice

Neo-realism Liberalism
Leading to conflict leading to cooperation
According to Alexander Wendt, people
act towards objects and people on the
basis of the meanings that the objects
have for them battle TankNukes of
NK etc.
States act differently towards enemies
and friends
Enemies are threatening, whereas,
friends are not.
 Assumptions

States are principle unit of analysis.

Ideas, norms, identities, and beliefs of value.
Identities are not determined by Int. structure
rather it is produced by interaction and
institutions.
 Class Activity
Before 1989, the United States felt threatened by the
Soviet military. Today, notWhy??
Realism: Russia is weaker.
Liberalism: Economic ties has eased the conflict.
Constructivism: Nuclear weapons have not
disappeared, but the threat perception has
changed.

US example they are liberal by heart, believe in

progress and democracy
They act according to realist assumptions and justify
policies in terms of liberal ideology.
 International Society

A historical approach focuses on human

being and their political beliefs.

Central point ideas, ideologies that shape

world politics.

It is a middle way between realism and

liberalism.
 Assumptions
IR is a branch of human relations.

Based on values such as independence,

security, justice, and order.

Accepts anarchy and believe that world

politics is an Anarchical Society, with
different Foreign Policy approaches by
different states.
According to IS IR must be understood as
society of states.

System of states is a realist concept, the

society of states is a liberal concept.
 Evolution of International Society
There are many ways to describe and pattern of
relations among different political communities.

1 extreme: One might be a struggle of all against all;

result war, conquest, conflict, slaughter, and
enslavement of the defeated etc. (realist)

2nd extreme: at the other end we might conceive a

world government in which individual societies
retain distinctions based on language, religion, and
culture like USA. (Liberal)
Between these two extremes there emerged
many forms of interactions; empires, dynasties,
kings, theocracies, centralized & decentralized
form etc.

Int. society is a combination of different political

communities which accept some common
values, rules , and institution.

Although, originally it was coined for relations

among European states.
Roots of IS can be traced from the first
organized human community.

Early forms of diplomacy and treaties existed

in ancient Middle east, city states of Greece,
Persians, Indian and Roman societies.
 Medieval Europe/Christianity/Islam

From 500 1500 European society was a

complex of many nations under roman
catholic church.

Roman Church played a vital role in shaping

the normative/moral side of the society.

Islam developed its own understanding of

international society.
 Holy Makkah has sent a message to Geneva:
Ought there be unity of mankind or unity among the nation
s?
 Contemporary int. society

Contemporary international society comprises

the norms, rules, established practices, and
institutions governing the relations among
sovereign states: communities occupying a
defined territory whining which they exercise
judicial independence.
Feminism
 Terminologies
Sex is the biological difference
between male and female
human.

Gender is the social difference

between males and females roles or
mens and womens personalities
(Connell 2002)
 FEMINIST THEORY

Feminism as an academic discipline grew out of Feminist

movement of the 1960s &1970s, dedicated to achieving
political, social and economic equality for women.
All social relations are gendered.
Feminist IR scholars have also emphasized the
importance of looking at how gender shapes the current
global political economy.
It explains womens subordination, which exist in varying
degree in all societies, and to seek ways to end it.
 Implications of taking gender seriously in IR

It rejects the assumption that Powers comes

out from barrel of the gun, or ensued from the
declaration of the statesman.
Feminism reconceptualization of power and
attention to the margin of global politic have
allowed IR to recognize and comprehend
new political phenomena.
More inclusive view of globalization, where
women have equal role as do men.
evaluating the role of women in 3rd world
development;
the effect on women of changed social
policies in industrial societies;
the gender-particular effects of the activities
of international organizations; and
the re-institutionalization of rigid gender
divisions in the post-Communist societies of
central and east Europe.
Are the Key concepts of IR theory
gendered?

Man, State, Power, Security

1. Man. As you know, Realism and Liberalism see
people as rational, self-maximizing actors.
But is this an accurate model of humanity,
ask feminist IR thinkers, or is it actually a
model made by men about how some men
operate in a particular context of relations
between genders?
2. The State. Rather than conceiving the state as a
reflection of sovereignty, some gender theorists see
states as reflective of gender power, which acts on
men and women to socialize narrow versions of
gender identities into them.

Men are identified with the public realm as bringers

of order, while women are identified with private
thinking.
3. Power. This is typically conceived as "power-
over" in most IR theory: the ability of A to get B
to do something B would not otherwise have
done. But, say feminist IR theorists, this rests on
the male-centered assumption that autonomy
equals being free from the direct influence of
others.
An alternative view of power is to focus on the
ways in which the rules of the game are
organized in advance of 'power-over'.
4. Security. Security of individuals is related to
national and international politics.

Security threats include: domestic violence,

rape, poverty, gender subordination,
ecological destruction, war

Its people, who are insecure by their states

security policies.
 War and Feminism
Much of the legitimacy of war is based on that
men fight wars to protect vulnerable people
Yet, women and children constitute a majority of
casualties in recent wars

Feminists highlight:

Militaries are often threats to individuals

(particularly women security.

Wartime rape as a deliberate military strategy.

 Conclusion
The three most important points about
feminist IR theory in general:

1. The central claim is that gender is a social

issue and not a biological one;
2. The rejection of structures in IR theory such
as anarchy etc.
3. Passionate interest in the possibilities for
change in world politics.
Questions for probing

Why do Realists claim that states must pursue

power? and why do power is considered the
solution of all problems faced by the state?

Why is international politics seen as more

important than domestic politics by Realists?

Why states are obsessed with Balance of

Power?