Unit 2A

Human Form & Function

Cells, metabolism & regulation

Nutrition
 Nutrients
Nutrients are the chemical
compounds that make up foods and
which are essential for life.
Nutrients include:
Carbohydrates
Lipids
Protein
Vitamins
Minerals
Carbohydrates
 Carbohydrates
Typical examples are sugars &
starches
They all contain the elements C,
H, O roughly in the proportion of
1C:2H:1O
The building blocks are simple
(monosaccharide) sugars (e.g.
glucose)
 Main uses
Carbohydrates are used mainly
as an energy source for cellular
respiration
Some combine with other
substances e.g. glycoproteins in
the cell membrane
Can be stored in the liver and in
muscle cells as glycogen
 Sugars
Sugars are relatively small
carbohydrate molecules either a
single sugar molecule
(monosaccharides or simple
sugars) or double sugar molecules
(disaccharides or double sugars)
Sugars are water soluble and most
are sweet
 Sugars
Examples of
monosaccharide
sugars - glucose
(dextrose), fructose,
galactose and ribose
Examples of
disaccharide sugars -
sucrose, maltose and
lactose
 Polysaccharides
Starch is a good example of a
polysaccharide (glycogen is a
polysaccharide that occurs in animals)
Polysaccharides are long chains (or
polymers) of simple sugars
Polysaccharides are not sweet and do
not dissolve in water
Starch represents a large part of our
carbohydrate intake
 Carbohydrate rich foods
Foods rich in starch Cereal-based
foods (e.g. bread, pastry, pasta,
noodles, rice)
Some vegetables (e.g. potatoes, beans
& corn), nuts
Foods rich in sugars cakes, biscuits,
lollies, many processed foods, fruit
(dried fruit, stone fruit, bananas, citrus),
sweetened drinks (fruit juice, flavoured
milk, carbonated drinks)
Lipids
 Lipids

Typical examples are fats & oils

They all contain the elements C, H, O - a
smaller proportion of O than in
carbohydrates
The building blocks are fatty acids &
glycerol
Some fatty acids (e.g. omega-3 & omega-
6) are essential fatty acids
 Triglycerides
Most lipids are
Glycerol Fatty acids
triglycerides i.e. one
glycerol molecule attached
to three fatty acid
molecules.
The way in which the C &
H atoms in the fatty acids
are bonded determines
whether a fat is saturated
or unsaturated.
 Lipid classification
Low density lipids (LDL) carry cholesterol from
the liver to the tissues. LDL can start the
formation of plaque and increased levels are
associated with cardiovascular disease. For this
reason, cholesterol inside LDL is often called
bad lipids.
High density lipids (HDL) collect cholesterol from
the tissues, and bring it back to the liver.
Sometimes referred to as the good lipids.
 Main uses
An energy source lipids contain twice as much
energy as carbohydrates
Energy storage
Insulation
Protection of organs
Structural functions (e.g. cell membrane, myelin
sheath
Metabolic functions (e.g. cholesterol, steroids)
Chemical messengers (e.g. prostaglandin,
hormones)
 Lipid-rich foods

Dairy foods (e.g. cream, butter,

cheese), pastry, fried foods, meat
(fat on), poultry (skin on), oily fish,
avocado, olives, nuts
Proteins
 Proteins
They all contain the elements
C, H, O, N (some contain
elements such as iron, sulphur
and phosphorus)
The building blocks are amino
acids
 Main uses
Structural functions (e.g. actin &
myosin in muscles, collagen in
connective tissues)
Metabolic functions (e.g. enzymes)
Oxygen transport (haemoglobin)
Protection (antibodies, blood
clotting)
Energy source (in emergencies)
 Essential amino acids
Essential amino acids are the
eight (possibly nine) amino acids
that cannot be produced by the
body and must therefore be
obtained from the diet.
 Complete proteins (animal
proteins, such as most meats,
eggs & milk) contain the full range
of amino acids.
Incomplete proteins (mainly plant
proteins, such as grains &
legumes) contain low levels of
one or more of the essential
amino acids.
 Protein-rich foods
Dairy foods (e.g. milk, cheese, yoghurt)
Eggs
Lean Meats, Fish, and Poultry
Soy Milk
Beans, Tofu, Lentils, and other
Legumes
Grains, including bread and pasta
Nuts and Seeds
 Vitamins
Vitamins are organic substance
essential in small quantities for
normal health.
Most vitamins act as coenzymes
or help regulate metabolic
processes.
There are 13 known vitamins,
most of which are present in
foods - some are produced within
the body.
 Solubility

Vitamins are often classified as water

soluble or fat soluble
Vitamins B & C are water soluble.
These are easily excreted from the
body.
Vitamins A, D, E & K are fat soluble
and are absorbed from the gut with
the help of lipds.
 Vitamin deficiency diseases
A night blindness
B1 beriberi
B3 pellagra
B6 & B12 anaemia
B9 (folic acid) miscarriage, neural
tube defect
C scurvy
D - rickets
 Dietary minerals
Dietary minerals are the chemical
elements required by living
organisms, other than the four
elements Carbon, Hydrogen,
Nitrogen, and Oxygen.
Dietary minerals occur in all
natural foods.
Macrominerals & trace minerals

Macrominerals are those, such as

Na, Mg, K, Ca, Fe, P, S & Cl,
required in relatively large
amounts.
Trace minerals are those required
relatively in small amounts (see
table).
 Functions
Dietary minerals have many functions
e.g.
Ca is needed in bones and muscles
Na & K are important electrolytes
Fe is needed in haemoglobin
P is an essential element in nucleic
acids (DNA & RNA)
 A balanced diet

USDA food pyramid