The radiation exposure usually

results from diagnostic as well as

therapeutic radiation devices.
BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF
RADIATION
Radiation produce changes within the living tissues.

The X-ray beam while traversing the tissue forces the

electrons to be ejected from the atomic lattice.

The atom is thus left with surplus +ve electrical charge.

The cells within the tissue come to a state of high

chemical reactivity which can initiate biological
effects.
DIRECT AND INDIRECT EFFECTS OF
RADIATION
The DIRECT effect appears due to absorption of energy by the
molecules.

While INDIRECT effects are caused by the products of radiation

decomposition [radiolysis] of water and other solutes of the
body.

After radiolysis of water in the cells, there is formation of free

radicals with unpaired electrons. These free radicals and the
H2O2 formed by them are highly reactive and mutagenic.

Since these free radicals possess large amount of energy , they

can readily break chemical bounds such as proteins , nucleic
acids and lipids.
REACTION SHOWING FORMATION
OF FREE RADICALS WITH
UNPAIRED ELECTRONS:
DAMAGES PRODUCED BY THE
RADIATION IN A DNA MOLECULES
ARE:-
Change of base (deamination) , loss of base , H+ bond
breakage between chains , single strand break , double
strand break , cross-linking with helix and cross-
linking with other DNA molecules and protein.

Any alteration in the order is most likely to change the

genetic information. These changes may lead to
mutations, disturbed normal cell proliferation or other
cellular activities.
SUSCEPTIBILITY OF DIFFERENT
SPECIES TO THE RADIATION:-
Gy = Gray
1 Gray = 1 joule of energy per Kg. of absorbing material.
1 Gray = 100 Rads.
LD 50/30 = dose that will kill 50% of the population within a peroid of 30
days.

Species LD 50/30
Rabbit 7.5 Gy
Rat 7.1 Gy
Mouse 6.4 Gy
Hamster 6.1 Gy
Guinea pig 4.5 Gy
Man 3.0 Gy
Dog 2.5 Gy
EARLY EFFECTS OF RADIATION:-
The intensive irradiation of the entire body severely
depletes radiosensitive cells in many organs
simultaneously. The combined effect produces
radiation sickness (acute radiation syndrome).
THE DEGREE OF INJURY TO
DIFFERENT TISSUES/ORGANS BY
RADIATION:-
Lymphoid tissue: within 15 min. after a moderate dose,
there is marked reduction in cell division among
lymphocytes & many show necrotic changes.

Bone marrow: the precursors of red blood cells,

granulocytes & platelets are radiosensitive. Within a week
or two after radiation exposure most of the radiosensitive
elements disappear from marrow leaving an aplastic
marrow containing resistant cells & haemorrhages.

Organ of vision: radiation induces inflammatory

reactions in the conjuntiva & sclera.
 Digestive system: large dose of radiation cause ulcers &
erosions in the buccal cavity. Also the pepsinogen
secreting cells are adversely affected & parietal cells are
functionally disturbed resulting in decreased
hydrochloric acid production. The net effect of this is
gastric ulcers & haemorrhage. Also large doses of
radiation may shorten the villi of intestine & cause injury
resulting loss of fluids & decreased absorption and
electrolyte imbalance.

Respiratory system: radiation pneumonitis, hyalinisation

& fibrosis of the lungs may be observed.

Female reproductive organs: ova & the granulosa cells are

highly radiosensitive.
 Male reproductive organs: spermatogonia are highly
sensitive, at higher dose it may not be able to fertilise ova.
If fertilisation occurs, the implantation fails. And the
sterility sets in at dose above 2-4Gy.

Urinary system: parenchymal cells, ureters & bladder are

radioresistant. The damage to the kidneys occur due to the
injury to the blood vessels, the resultant ischemia produces
hypertension .

Skin: germinal layer of the epidermis is adversely affected.

Higher doses of radiation cause cell death & increased
cellular differentiation, these cells migrate to the
superficial layer of the skin & desquamate. Normal tight
ridged structure of the dermis become loose. Dermatitis &
subsequent ulcers develop above dose of 10 Gy.
DELAYED EFFECTS OF RADIATION:-
It includes shortening of the life span, leukamia,
malignant tumours & cataract. In man, there may also
be induration & atrophy of the skin, connective tissue
& lungs.
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF
RADIATION SAFETY:-
Increasing the distance between the radiation source and
personnel.

No individuals other than operator and those essential

involved in the procedure should be in the X-ray room.

Wherever possible, the animal should not be manually

restrained. Chemical restraint combined with physical
restraint devices should be employed.

To avoid exposure to the primary beam, a cassette holding

device should always be used in large animal radiography.
 The operator should be in a shielding booth or behind
a shielding screen or atleast 6 feet away from the X-ray
source.

No part of the body should be exposed to the primary

X-ray beam.
USE OF
PROTECTIVE
BARRIERS:-
Gloves: The
lead gloves
should have
0.5mm lead
equivalent for
voltages upto
100kv.
Goggles:
Lead goggles
should be
used during
fluoroscopy
examinations.
Aprons:
Aprons should
have a
minimum of
0.25mm lead
equivalent for
voltages upto
100kv.
X-ray room & equipment:
The X-ray facilities should be located away from the flow of
traffic & public

Warning signs must be displayed near the location of X-ray

units.

The wall of the X-ray room should be atleast 22cm thick.

It is essential to check X-ray equipments periodically for

possible leakage.
REDUCTION OF EXPOSURE
FACTORS:
Correct exposure factors must be used in the first
attempt.

The X-ray film should be processed correctly and

properly to avoid repetition.

Avoid unnecessary exposures on owners demand.

Use of aluminium filters of atleast 2.5mm thickness to

absorb the soft X-ray.
USE OF RADIATION MONITORING
DEVICES:
Radiation monitoring devices should be worn all the time
by the individuals involved in radiographic work.

Ideally, one film badge should be worn at the belt level to

monitor whole body exposure and the other at the neckline
to estimate exposure to the skin of the head & neck and
eyes.

At periodic intervals these monitoring devices should be

sent to the research center(Division of Radiation Safety,
Bhabha Atomic Research Center, Trombay, Bombay) for
calculating radiation dose.
MONITORING DEVICE:
MAXIMUM PERMISSIBLE DOSE FOR
VET. & STAFF:
BODY PART ONE WEEK ONE YEAR
Whole body, 100m rem 5,000m rem
Gonads, bone marrow,
Lens of the eye

Hands forearms 1,500m rem 75,000m rem

& feet .

Where, rem = rad*quality factor.

Made by: Girjesh Upmanyu