Used to help clients acquire new coping skills,

improve communication, or learn to break

maladaptive habits and overcome self-
defeating emotional conflicts (Corsini and
Wedding, 2000).

The behavioural therapist/counsellor focuses

on interpreting the client's behaviour,
emphasising a collaborative and positive
relationship with the client and values the use
of objectivity to assess and understand the
client.
History
Had its beginnings in the early 1900s
Became established as a psychological
approach in the 1950s and 1960s.
A number of people that that have contributed to
the development of behaviourist theory:
1. Ivan Pavlov (1849 1936)
2. Edward Thorndike (1874-1949)
3. John B. Watson (1878 1958)
4. B.F. Skinner (1904 1958)
 Behavioural theory is based on the belief
that behaviour is learned.
Behaviours can be measured, trained, and
changed.
All behaviours are acquired through
conditioning.
Conditioning occurs through interaction with
the environment.
Behavioural theorists believe that our
responses to the environmental stimuli
shape our behaviours.
Beliefs :
Children are influenced and changed as
biological entities by things that happen to
them (Skinner, 1971)
Human beings are neither good nor bad,
they are merely products of their environment.
People are only capable of making
responses and patterns of behaviour that they
have learnt.
 Since human behaviour is learnt, any or
all behaviour can be unlearned and new
behaviours learned in its place.
Unacceptable behaviours can be
unlearned.
This process of unlearning or reeducation
is what involves the behavioural
counsellor.
Behavioural counselling is a reeducation
or relearning process.

Adaptive or helpful behaviour is reinforced,

while maladaptive or unhelpful behaviour
is extinguished.

The counsellors role is to help children

achieve their goals through reinforcement.
 Two important concepts central to
behavioural theory are classical and
operant conditioning. Both are
behaviour modification techniques.
While both result in learning, the
processes are quite different.
 Classical conditioning is one type of
behavioral therapy that stems from early
theorist Ivan Pavlovs research. Pavlov
executed a famous study using dogs, which
focused on the effects of a learned response
(e.g., a dog salivating when hearing a bell)
through a stimulus (e.g., pairing the sound of
a bell with food).
 In his famous experiment, Ivan Petrovich
Pavlov noticed dogs began to salivate in
response to a tone after the sound had
been repeatedly paired with presenting
food.

He quickly realized that this was a

learned response and set out to further
investigate the conditioning process.
 Classical conditioning involves pairing a
previously neutral stimulus (such as the
sound of a bell) with an unconditioned
stimulus (the taste of food).

This unconditioned stimulus naturally and

automatically triggers salivating as a
response to the food, which is known as the
unconditioned response. After associating
the neutral stimulus and the unconditioned
stimulus, the sound of the bell alone will start
to evoke salivating as a response.
 The sound of the bell is now known as the
conditioned stimulus and salivating in
response to the bell is known as the
conditioned response.
 Also known as instrumental learning

Operant Conditioning was developed by

B. F. Skinner.

The process whereby learned responses

are controlled by the consequences
(Weiten, 2007)
 He believed in the power of rewards to
increase the likelihood of a behavior and
punishments to decrease the occurrence
of a behavior.

There are two main processes involved

in operant conditioning
Reinforcement
Punishment occurs
 occurs when a response is strengthened by an
outcome.

There are two types of reinforcement, negative

and positive reinforcement.

Positive reinforcement occurs when a behaviour

is strengthened by a positive reward. For example,
a child behaves well at the shops so is given a
chocolate as a reward. This reinforces the good
behaviour at the shops.
 Negative reinforcement occurs when behaviour
is strengthened by the removal of a negative
stimulus. For example, doing a relaxation exercise
when stressed. The relaxation exercise (response)
reinforces this behaviour as the stress (aversive
stimulus) has been removed.
 when a response to behaviour decreases the
likelihood of the behaviour reoccurring (Weiten,
2007).

There are also two types of punishment,

negative and positive punishment.

Positive punishment occurs when an aversive

response to behaviour is used and therefore the
behaviour is less likely to occur. For example, a
child is given chores when he or she has been
naughty. The child therefore, has been given a
punishment to reduce the likelihood of the bad
behaviour continuing.
 Negative punishment occurs when something
is taken away and therefore decreases the
likelihood of the behaviour reoccurring. For
example, a person fails to secure a bike and
this leads to the theft of the bike. This therefore
decreases the likelihood of the person leaving
property unsecured in the future.
 Operant conditioning focuses on using
either reinforcement or punishment to
increase or decrease a behavior.

Through this process, an association is

formed between the behavior and the
consequences for that behavior.

For example, imagine that a trainer is

trying to teach a dog to fetch a ball.
 When the dog successfully chases and
picks up the ball, the dog receives praise
as a reward.

When the animal fails to retrieve the ball,

the trainer withholds the praise.

Eventually, the dog forms an association

between his behavior of fetching the ball
and receiving the desired reward.
In terms of Behavior - Involuntary or Voluntary
Classical conditioning involves associating
between an involuntary response and a stimulus
- known as Respondent Behaviours which occur
reflexively or automatically.

Operant conditioning is about associating

between a voluntary behavior and a
consequence - known as Operant Behaviours
which is under our conscious control.
 Classical conditioning is passive on the
part of the learner.
Operant conditioning requires the learner
to actively participate and perform some
type of action in order to be rewarded or
punished.
Operant conditioning - the learner is
rewarded with incentives.
Classical conditioning involves no such
enticements.
 Flooding is a process generally used for those
with phobias and anxiety. It works by
exposing the patient directly to their worst
fears.

What flooding aims to do is expose the person

to the phobic object or situation for an
extended period of time in a safe and controlled
environment.

The idea is that the person cannot escape the

object/ situation during the process and
therefore must confront the fear head on.
 This leads to fatigue and eventual
unlearning of the undesirable response.

The initial response would be high anxiety

or panic, which would wear itself out after
a while.

Obviously this method can be

disconcerting and may only be suitable
for certain situations.
 An example of this
would be exposing a
person who is afraid of
spiders to a spider for
an extended period of
time.

The longer this

continues with nothing
bad happening, the less
fearful the person
becomes.
 Developed by Joseph Wolpe (1958, 1969)
from earlier work by Jacobson (1938)

A procedure used to eliminate anxiety and

fear (example: caused by taking a test, or
fear of an animal etc.)

This technique works on a similar premise to

flooding, however it is more gradual.

The counselor will develop a hierarchy of

scenes with increasing intensity related to
the fear or phobia.
 The child is taught the process of deep muscle
relaxation.
While relaxed, the child is asked to visualize the scenes
in the hierarchy.
The child is asked to go as high as possible in the
hierarchy without having anxiety.
When anxiety is felt, the child signals the counselor by
raising one finger, and the counselor reverts to a less
anxiety-provoking scene.
The technique involves - relax, imagine, relax, stop
imagining, relax, and so on.
After repeated practice the child learns to relax while
visualizing each stage of the stimulus hierarchy.
 The therapist helps the individual confront their
fears in a relaxed state.

Another example of this would be a person who is

afraid of small spaces.

They may start by thinking about a small space or

looking at an image of a small space while
utilising relaxation techniques, and work their
way up to being in a small space.

This pairing of the fear-inducing item and newly

learned relaxation behaviour aims to eliminate the
phobia or anxiety.
A way of helping someone lose bad habits or undesirable
behaviours by using an aversive stimulus associate
the habit/behaviour with an effect that is not pleasant.
Common Example:
An alcoholic is prescribed a certain drug that induces
nausea, anxiety and headaches when combined with
alcohol.
This means that each time the person drinks, he/she will
get negative side effects. This would put off that person
from drinking to help them overcome their addiction.

In a classroom, students can wear rubber bands around

their wrists and snap them each time they find
themselves daydreaming instead of listening to the
 A stronger pleasant stimulus is
paired with a weaker aversive
stimulus as a procedure for
overcoming the anxiety
caused by the aversive
stimulus.

Example: A child who is afraid

to go to school is given her
favourite chocolate (pleasant
stimulus) while sitting in the
classroom (aversive stimulus).
Operant conditioning is also called instrumental conditioning.

REINFORCEMENT
Is to strengthen or increase a behaviour

PUNISHMENT
Is to decrease or weaken a behaviour

EXTINCTION
Is to decrease or eliminate certain behaviours

Sources:
Gerald Covey (2009). Theory and practice of counselling and psychotherapy. Boston, MA: Cengage Learning, Inc.
https://www.verywell.com/operant-conditioning-a2-2794863
http://examples.yourdictionary.com/operant-conditioning-examples.html#hxvZ1kklgF3VclYL.99
 Shaping is a method of positive reinforcement of behaviour
patterns in operant conditioning.
It is designed to induce new behaviors by reinforcing behaviors
that approximate the desired behavior.
Shaping trains a subject by rewarding proper behavior and
discouraging improper behavior.
The method requires that the subject perform behaviors that at
first merely resemble the target behavior; through reinforcement,
these behaviors are gradually changed or "shaped" to
encourage the target behavior itself.
The counselor looks for the desired behaviour, waits until it
occurs, and reinforces it when it occurs.
In essence, the counselor catches the child in good
behaviour and rewards it.
Source: Boundless. Shaping. Boundless Psychology. Boundless, 26 May. 2016. Retrieved 19 Jun. 2016
from https://www.boundless.com/psychology/textbooks/boundless-psychology-textbook/learning-7/operant-conditioning-47/shaping-198-12733/
There are two kinds of reinforcers:
Positive reinforcers are favourable events or outcomes that are
presented after the behaviour.
Example: The giving of positive reinforcers such as rewards
increases a behaviour like creating an excellent work of art.
(Positive Reinforcement increases a behaviour by giving or
providing a positive outcome or pleasant event.)

Negative reinforcers are unfavourable events or outcomes that are

removed after the behaviour.

Example: The removal of negative reinforcers such as curfew
hours or fines increases a behaviour like studying hard to
achieve a GPA of 3.5 and above.
(Negative Reinforcement increases a behaviour by removing,
stopping or avoiding a negative outcome or aversive event.)
There are two kinds of punishments:
POSITIVE PUNISHMENT
Positive punishment is used to decrease a behaviour and
is presenting something unpleasant after the behaviour.
Example:
Hamish has to stay back in class whenever he does not
clean the classroom according to the duty roster.

NEGATIVE PUNISHMENT
Negative punishment is also used to decrease a behavior
and is removing something pleasant after the behavior.
Example:
Ted gets a RM300 fine for missing class without reasons.
Money (something pleasant) was removed to decrease the
behaviour of skipping class.
Punishment
 Operant Conditioning
Counselling Techniques

Shapi
ng

Role- Modelli
playing ng

Behaviour Token
grou
practice econo
ps mies
 Modelling consists of exposing the child to one or
more individuals who exhibit desired behaviours,
either in real life, film or YouTube presentations.
The models may be friends, classmates, adults ,
book/TV characters, and even the counselor.
Example:

Sammy indicates that she wants to be like her friend,

Carlos, because Carlos has a lot of friends and good
grades.

The counselor asks Sammy to observe Carlos

behaviours and write down what she likes and wants
to imitate. They then choose one important behaviour
and worked on it through role-playing and behaviour
practice/rehearsal groups.
 TOKEN ECONOMIES
The children earn tokens or points for
appropriate or on-task behaviour.
These points can be cashed in periodically
for things such as chocolates, books, field trips,
free time, etc.
 CONTINGENCY CONTRACTS /
CONTINGENCY MANAGEMENT

Contingency contracts are formal plans that pair

behavioral change with positive reinforcement.

A contingency contract is an agreement between a

student and teacher which states behavioral goals for
the student and reinforcers or rewards that the student
will receive contingent upon achievement of these
goals.

While contingency contracts are created by

counselors and the child, self-management
contracts are formulated by the person who can take
more responsibility for their actions.
 Extinction works by removing any type of reinforcement
to behaviour.
Can be used for behaviours that have been maintained
by positive or negative reinforcement.
Example:
Children who display temper tantrums - parents often
reinforce this behaviour by giving attention to them.
To deal with this problem using Extinction, the parent
can eliminate the connection between tantrums
(behaviour) and positive reinforcement (attention).
When the parent stop giving attention, the tantrums
could be reduced or eliminated through this extinction
process.
However, this extinction process may have negative
side effects such as anger or aggression.
 Provide a safe setting in which the child can practice
new behaviours before trying them out in real-life
situations
Useful for behaviour changes such as assertiveness
training, communication skills, study habits, etc.
The counselor needs to develop a lesson plan with
behavioural objectives, instructional methods, reinforcement
and evaluation.
Eg of objective : Following 8 weekly group meetings, each
child in the group will have demonstrated in at least 2 real-
life settings the ability to :
Say no to desirable peer influence

Interact politely with other people

 Role-playing helps children define a problem,
put themselves in someone elses place or
rehearse the behavior.
Behavioural counsellors often find that role-
playing facilitates the progress of clients in
self-management programs
Types
Role-playing to define the problem
Role-reversal

Role-playing used as behaviour rehearsal

THANK YOU