What is respiration? Respiration is the process by which organisms extract the energy stored in complex molecules and use it to generate adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
In this way they obtain energy to fuel their metabolic pathways.
ATP provides the ATP
immediate source of energy for biological processes such as active transport, movement and metabolism.
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Types of respiration During aerobic respiration, a respiratory substrate, e.g. glucose, is split in the presence of oxygen to release carbon dioxide and water. A large number of ATP molecules are produced, releasing the energy from the glucose.
C6H12O6 + 6 O2 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + 36 ATP
In anaerobic respiration, glucose is converted (in the absence
of oxygen) to either lactate or ethanol. The ATP yield is low.
C6H12O6 2 C2H5OH + 2 CO2 + 2 ATP
ethanol
C6H12O6 2 C3H6O3 + 2 ATP
lactate 4 of 39 Boardworks Ltd 2009 Where does respiration occur? Respiration occurs in all living cells. In eukaryotes the early stages of respiration occur in the cytoplasm. The later stages of respiration are restricted to the mitochondria.
Mitochondria contain highly folded inner membranes that
hold key respiratory proteins (including the enzyme that makes ATP) over a large surface area.
Mitochondria provide an isolated
environment to maintain optimum conditions for respiration.
Mitochondria have their own DNA and
ribosomes, so can manufacture their own respiratory enzymes.
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The structure of the mitochondria
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An overview of respiration
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8 of 39 Boardworks Ltd 2009 Adenosine triphosphate ATP contains a sugar adenine (ribose), a base (adenine) and three phosphate groups. ribose phosphates
When ATP is hydrolysed to form ADP and inorganic phosphate,
30.5 kJ of energy are released.
+ + + 30.5 kJ inorganic ATP H 2O ADP phosphate
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Why ATP? Biological systems transfer the energy in glucose to ATP because unlike glucose
glucose ATP
ATP releases its energy instantly in a single reaction.
The hydrolysis of ATP releases a small amount of
energy, ideal for fuelling reactions in the body.
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Phosphorylation of ADP The addition of an inorganic phosphate group (Pi) to a molecule like ADP is called phosphorylation. ADP is phosphorylated during respiration.
Two types of phosphorylation occur during respiration:
1. Substrate-level: glycolysis & Krebs cycle
A single reaction involving the direct transfer of a phosphate group from a donor molecule to ADP.
2. Oxidative: electron transport chain
A series of oxidation reactions that produce sufficient energy to form ATP from ADP and phosphate.
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Coenzymes Coenzymes are molecules that bind with a specific enzyme or substrate, helping to catalyze a reaction. Breaking the bonds between coenzyme and product after a reaction is crucial, substrate otherwise coenzyme concentration will drop, limiting respiratory rate. enzyme coenzyme Three major coenzymes are used in respiration: NAD (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) CoA (coenzyme A) FAD (flavine adenine dinucleotide)
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NAD, FAD and coenzyme A NAD can accept a hydrogen molecule, forming reduced NAD (NADH). nicotinamide NAD+ + 2H NADH + H+ adenine
This is used to regenerate ADP in the ribose
electron transport chain (ETC). NAD Coenzyme A aids the transition between glycolysis and the Krebs cycle, by converting pyruvate to acetyl coenzyme A.
FAD, like NAD, can accept hydrogen to form reduced FAD
(FADH2).
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The molecules of respiration
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15 of 39 Boardworks Ltd 2009 The first stage of respiration: glycolysis
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The stages of glycolysis
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The fate of pyruvate
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Krebs cycle
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Counting carbons
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Keeping track of the products For each molecule of glucose, glycolysis produces:
For each molecule of glucose, the link reaction produces:
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Keeping track of the products For each molecule of glucose, Krebs cycle generates:
4 produced by decarboxylation
6 produced by redox reactions
2 produced by redox reactions
2 produced by substrate-level phosphorylation
The NADH and FADH2 contain the potential energy originally
locked in glucose. This energy is now transferred to ATP by oxidative phosphorylation in the electron transport chain.
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The electron transport chain
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Understanding the ETC
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How much ATP is produced?
Process ATP in ATP produced Net ATP out
glycolysis 2 4 2 link reaction 0 0 0 Krebs cycle 0 2 (per glucose) 2 (per glucose) Via the electron transport chain and chemiosmosis, each NADH can yield 2.5 ATP and each FADH2 1.5 ATP. From one molecule of glucose, glycolysis yields 2 NADH, the link reaction yields 2 NADH and the Krebs cycle yields 6 NADH and 2 FADH2. 10 2.5 = 25 ATP from NADH 2 1.5 = 3 ATP from FADH2 total = 2 + 2 + 25 + 3 = 32 ATP overall 25 of 39 Boardworks Ltd 2009 Efficiency of aerobic respiration The theoretical yield of 32 ATPs for each glucose molecule is rarely achieved. In fact respiration is only about 32% efficient.
Some protons leak across the mitochondrial membrane,
so not all are available to generate ATP via chemiosmosis.
Some ATP is used up moving
pyruvate into the mitochondria by active transport.
Some ATP is used up moving hydrogen from reduced NAD
made during glycolysis into the mitochondria.
Some energy is lost as heat. This heat helps to maintain a
suitable body temperature for enzyme-controlled reactions.
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Adaptations of mitochondria
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Evidence for chemiosmosis The theory of chemiosmosis matrix states that the energy in a chemical gradient established by electron movement is used to generate ATP. Evidence includes: The proton gradient across the inner membrane can be measured as it corresponds to a pH gradient. Isolated ATP synthase enzymes can produce ATP using a proton gradient even if no electron transport is occurring. Chemicals that block the ETC inhibit the formation of a proton gradient and prevent ATP synthesis.
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29 of 39 Boardworks Ltd 2009 Respiratory rate The respiratory rate is the rate at which an organism converts glucose to CO2 and water. It can be calculated by measuring an organisms rate of oxygen consumption.
Studies on simple animals
often use a respirometer.
Respirometers measure the change in gas volume in a
closed system. Any change is due to the respiratory activity of the study organisms. Potassium hydroxide or soda lime is used to absorb the carbon dioxide produced, meaning any changes in volume are due to oxygen consumption.
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The respirometer
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Respirometer experiments
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Respiratory substrates Other substances as well as glucose can be respired. Different respiratory substrates release different amounts of energy.
Respiratory substrate Mean energy value (kJ g-1)
carbohydrate 15.8 lipid 39.4 protein 17.0
The difference in the relative energy values of these respiratory
substrates is due to the amount of hydrogen atoms present in each one. If more hydrogen atoms are available to reduce coenzymes, more energy can subsequently be generated in the electron transport chain.
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Respiratory quotient Respiratory quotient (RQ) is the ratio of the volume of carbon dioxide produced to the volume of oxygen used in the same period of time. volume of CO2 given out RQ = volume of O2 taken in RQ gives an indication of the respiratory substrate being respired and whether respiration is aerobic or anaerobic. Type of respiration Substrate RQ anaerobic glucose >1 aerobic carbohydrate 1.0 protein approx. 0.9 lipid approx. 0.7 34 of 39 Boardworks Ltd 2009 Respiration calculations