VECTORS AND SCALARS

A scalar quantity has only magnitude and is completely

specified by a number and a unit.
Examples are: mass (2 kg), volume (1.5 L), and
frequency (60 Hz).
Scalar quantities of the same kind are added by using
ordinary arithmetic.
A vector quantity has both magnitude and direction.
Examples are displacement (an airplane has flown 200
km to the southwest), velocity (a car is moving at 60
km/h to the north), and force (a person applies an
upward force of 25 N to a package). When vector
quantities are added, their directions must be taken into
account.
A vector is represented by an arrowed line whose length
is proportional to the vector quantity and whose
direction indicates the direction of the vector quantity.
The resultant, or sum, of a number of vectors of a
particular type (force vectors, for example) is that single
vector that would have the same effect as all the original
vectors taken together.

R
VECTOR COMPONENTS
A vector in two dimensions may be resolved into two
component vectors acting along any two mutually
perpendicular directions.
2.1 Draw and calculate the components of the vector
F (250 N, 235o)
Fx = F cos
= 250 cos (235o)
= - 143.4 N
Fy = F sin
= 250 sin (235o)
= - 204.7 N

Fx

Fy
F
VECTOR ADDITION: COMPONENT METHOD
To add two or more vectors A, B, C, by the component
method, follow this procedure:

1. Resolve the initial vectors into components x and y.

2. Add the components in the x direction to give x and

add the components in the y direction to give y .
That is, the magnitudes of x and y are given by,
respectively:

x = Ax + Bx + Cx
y = Ay + By + Cy
 3. Calculate the magnitude and direction of the
resultant R from its components by using the
Pythagorean theorem:
R 2
x
2
y

and

y
tan 1

x
2.2 Three ropes are tied to a stake and the following forces are
exerted. Find the resultant force.

A (20 N, 0)
B (30 N, 150)
C (40 N, 232)
A (20 N, 0)
B (30 N, 150)
C (40 N, 232)

x-component y-component
20 cos 0 20 sin 0
30 cos 150 30 sin 150
40 cos 232 40 sin 232

x = - 30.6 N y = -16.5 N

R (30.6)2 (16.5) 2 = 34.7 N

 y 16.5
tan 1
tan 1
= 28.3
x 30.6

Since x = (-) and y = (-)

R is in the III Quadrant:

therefore:
180 + 28.3 = 208.3

R (34.7 N, 208.3)
2.3 Four coplanar forces act on a body at point O as shown in the
figure. Find their resultant with the component method.

A (80 N, 0)
B (100 N, 45)
C (110 N, 150)
D (160 N, 200)
A (80 N, 0) B (100 N, 45)
C (110 N, 150) D (160 N, 200)

x-component y-component
80 0
100 cos 45 100 sin 45
110 cos 150 110 sin 150
160 cos 200 160 sin 200

x = - 95 N y = 71 N

R (95) (71) = 118.6 N

2 2
 71
tan 1
= 36.7
95

Since x = (-) and y = (+)

R is in the II Quadrant,
therefore:
180 - 36.7= 143.3
R (118.6 N, 143.3)
 R (5.7) 2 (3.2) 2 = 6.5 N

3.2
tan 1
= 29
5.7

Since x = (+) and y = (-)

R is in the IV Quadrant,
therefore:
360 - 29= 331
R (6.5 N, 331)
AP PHYSICS LAB 2. VECTOR ADDITION
Objective:
The purpose of this experiment is to use the force table to
experimentally determine the equilibrant force of two and
three other forces. This result is checked by the component
method.

A system of forces
is in equilibrium
when a force
called the
equilibrant force is
equal and opposite
to their resultant
force.
Equipment
Force Table Set
DATA Table

FORCE MASS (kg) FORCE DIRECTION

(N)
mg = m (9.8 m/s2)

F1

F2

Equilibrant
FE

Resultant
FR
An object that experiences a push or a pull has a force
exerted on it. Notice that it is the object that is
considered. The object is called the system. The world
around the object that exerts forces on it is called the
environment.

system
FORCE
Forces can act either through the physical contact of
two objects (contact forces: push or pull) or at a
distance (field forces: magnetic force, gravitational
force).
Type of Force and
Description of Force Direction of Force
its Symbol

In the direction of
An applied force is a force that is applied to an
Applied object by another object or by a person. If a the pull or push.
Force person is pushing a desk across the room, then
FA there is an applied force acting upon the desk.
The applied force is the force exerted on the
desk by the person.
Type of Force and Direction of Force
Description of Force
its Symbol

The normal force is the support force exerted

upon an object that is in contact with another Perpendicular to
Normal
stable object. For example, if a book is resting the surface
Force
upon a surface, then the surface is exerting an
upward force upon the book in order to support
the weight of the book. The normal force is
FN always perpendicular to the surface
Type of Force and Direction of Force
Description of Force
its Symbol

Opposite to the
The friction force is the force exerted by a motion of the
Friction surface as an object moves across it or makes
object
Force an effort to move across it. The friction force
opposes the motion of the object. For example, if
a book moves across the surface of a desk, the
FF desk exerts a friction force in the direction
opposite to the motion of the book.
Type of Force and Direction of Force
Description of Force
its Symbol

Air resistance is a special type of frictional force

Air that acts upon objects as they travel through the
Opposite to the
air. Like all frictional forces, the force of air
Resistance resistance always opposes the motion of the motion of the
Force object. This force will frequently be ignored due object
to its negligible magnitude. It is most noticeable
for objects that travel at high speeds (e.g., a
FD skydiver or a downhill skier) or for objects with
large surface areas.
Type of Force and Direction of Force
Description of Force
its Symbol

In the direction of
Tensional Tension is the force that is transmitted through a the pull
Force string, rope, or wire when it is pulled tight by
forces acting at each end. The tensional force is
directed along the wire and pulls equally on the
FT objects on either end of the wire.
Type of Force and Direction of Force
Description of Force
its Symbol

The force of gravity is the force with which the

Gravitational earth, moon, or other massive body attracts an
Force (also object towards itself. By definition, this is the
Straight downward
known as weight of the object. All objects upon earth
Weight) experience a force of gravity that is directed
"downward" towards the center of the earth. The
force of gravity on an object on earth is always
Fg equal to the weight of the object.
FORCES HAVE AGENTS
Each force has a specific
identifiable, immediate cause
called agent. You should be
able to name the agent of
each force, for example the
force of the desk or your
hand on your book. The
agent can be animate such
as a person, or inanimate
such as a desk, floor or a
agent
magnet. The agent for the
force of gravity is Earth's
mass. If you can't name an
agent, the force doesn't
exist.
 A free-body-diagram (FBD) is a vector
diagram that shows all the forces that
act on an object whose motion is being
studied.

Directions:

- Choose a coordinate system defining the positive

direction of motion.
- Replace the object by a dot and locate it in the center
of the coordinate system.
- Draw arrows to represent the forces acting on the
system.
FN

FG
FN

FG
 FN

FF

FG
 FN

FGY

FGX FG
 FN

FF

FG
FT

FG
FT1
FT2

FG
FT1

FT2

FG
 FN

FT

FG
FN1

FN2

FG
 FN

FF FA

FG
 FN
FA

FF

FG
FT

FG
 FN

FF

FA
FG
FG
FD

FG
17.The ball has been punted by a football player.

FG
ARISTOTLE studied motion and divided it
into two types: natural motion and violent
motion.

Natural motion: up or down.

Objects would seek their natural resting
places.
Natural for heavy things to fall and for
very light things to rise.

Violent motion: imposed motion.

A result of forces.
GALILEO demolish the notion that a force
is necessary to keep an object moving.

He argued that ONLY when friction is

present, is a force needed to keep an
object moving.

In the absence of air resistance (drag)

both objects will fall at the same time.
A ball rolling down the incline rolls up the opposite
incline and reaches its initial height.

As the angle of the upward incline is reduced, the ball

rolls a greater distance before reaching its initial height.

How far will the ball roll along the horizontal?

 FIRST LAW OF MOTION

According to Newton's

First Law of Motion:

" If no net force acts on it, a

body at rest remains at rest and
a body in motion remains in
Isaac Newton
motion at constant speed in a
(1642-1727)
straight line."
NEWTON'S FIRST LAW OF MOTION

"An object at rest tends to stay at rest and an object

in motion tends to stay in motion with the same speed
and in the same direction unless acted upon by an
unbalanced force."

There are two parts to this statement:

- one which predicts the behavior of stationary
objects and
- the other which predicts the behavior of moving
objects.
The behavior of all objects can be described by saying
that objects tend to "keep on doing what they're doing"
(unless acted upon by an unbalanced force).

If at rest, they will continue in this same state of rest.

If in motion with an eastward velocity of 5 m/s, they will

continue in this same state of motion (5 m/s, East).
It is the natural tendency of objects to resist
changes in their state of motion.

This tendency to resist changes in their state of

motion is described as inertia.

Inertia is the resistance an object has to a change in

its state of motion.

The elephant at rest tends

to remain at rest.
Tablecloth trick:
Too little force, too little time to
overcome "inertia" of tableware.
 If the car were to abruptly stop and the seat belts
were not being worn, then the passengers in
motion would continue in motion.

Now perhaps you will be convinced of the need to wear

your seat belt. Remember it's the law - the law of inertia.
If the truck were to abruptly stop and the straps were
no longer functioning, then the ladder in motion
would continue in motion.
If the motorcycle were to abruptly stop, then the
rider in motion would continue in motion. The rider
would likely be propelled from the motorcycle and
be hurled into the air.
FIRST CONDITION FOR EQUILIBRIUM
A body is in translational equilibrium if and only if the
vector sum of the forces acting upon it is zero.
Fx = 0 Fy = 0
 Example of Free Body Diagram

300 600 B
A By
A B Ay
300 600
Ax Bx
50 N

1. Draw and label a sketch. Fg

2. Draw and label vector force diagram. (FBD)
3. Label x and y components opposite and
adjacent to angles.
2.4 A block of weight 50 N hangs from a cord that is knotted to two
other cords, A and B fastened to the ceiling. If cord B makes an
angle of 60 with the ceiling and cord A forms a 30 angle, draw the
free body diagram of the knot and find the tensions A and B.
A B
By Fx = B cos 60 - A cos 30 = 0
A 30 60
A cos 30
y Ax Bx B = 1.73 A
cos 60
Fy = B sin 60 + A sin 30 - 50 = 0
50 N

1.73 A sin 60 + A sin 30 = 50

N1L 1.5 A + 0.5 A = 50
A = 25 N
B = 1.73 (25) = 43.3 N

A = 25 N B = 43.3 N
2.5 A 200 N block rests on a frictionless inclined plane of slope
angle 30. A cord attached to the block passes over a frictionless
pulley at the top of the plane and is attached to a second block.
What is the weight of the second block if the system is in
equilibrium?
FN
FT FT
N1L

x FG2
200 N

Fx = FT - 200 sin 30 = 0 Fy = FT - FG = 0
FT = 200 sin 30 FT = FG2
= 100 N FG2 = 100 N
To swing open a door, you
exert a force.
The doorknob is near the
outer edge of the door. You
exert the force on the
doorknob at right angles to
the door, away from the
hinges.
To get the most effect from
the least force, you exert
the force as far from the
axis of rotation (imaginary
line through the hinges) as
possible.
TORQUE

Torque is a measure of a force's ability to rotate an

object.
 Torque is Determined by Three Factors:

The magnitude of the applied force.

The direction of the applied force.
The location of the applied force.

Magnitude
Locationofof
Direction offorce
force
Force
Each
The 40-N
of theforce
20-N
The forces nearer the end
forces
produces
has atwice
different
the 20 N
of the wrench have greater
2020
N
20NN
torque
torquetorques.
as
duedoes
to the
the 20
40NN
direction
20-N force.
of force. 20 N
20 N
The perpendicular
distance from the axis
of rotation to the line of
force is called the lever
arm of that force. It is
the lever arm that
determines the
effectiveness of a given
force in causing
rotational motion. If the
line of action of a force
passes through the
axis of rotation (A) the
lever arm is zero.
Torque
Units forofTorque
Depends on the magnitude the applied force and
on the length of the lever arm, according to the
following equation.
r is measured perpendicular to the line of action of
the force F
Units: Nm
t = Fr
t = (40 N)(0.60 m)
= 24.0 Nm
6 cm
40 N
Applying a Torque
Sign Convention:
Torque will be positive if F tends
to produce counterclockwise
rotation.
Torque will be negative if F tends
to produce clockwise rotation.
ROTATIONAL EQUILIBRIUM
An object is in rotational equilibrium when the sum of
the forces and torques acting on it is zero.

First Condition of Equilibrium:

Fx = 0 and Fy = 0
(translational equilibrium)

Second Condition of Equilibrium:

= 0
(rotational equilibrium)

By choosing the axis of rotation at the point of

application of an unknown force, problems may
be simplified.
CENTER OF MASS
The terms "center of mass" and "center of gravity" are
used synonymously in a uniform gravity field to
represent the unique point in an object or system that
can be used to describe the system's response to
external forces and torques.

The concept of the center of mass is that of an average

of the masses factored by their distances from a
reference point. In one plane, that is like the balancing of
a seesaw about a pivot point with respect to the torques
produced.
 Center of Gravity
The center of gravity of an object is the point at
which all the weight of an object might be
considered as acting for purposes of treating
forces and torques that affect the object.

The single support force has line of action that passes

through the c. g. in any orientation.
 Examples of Center of
Gravity

Note: C. of G. is not always inside material.

2.6 A 300 N girl and a 400 N boy stand on a 16 m platform
supported by posts A and B as shown. The platform itself weighs
200 N. What are the forces exerted by the supports on the
platform?
F = 0
A + B - 300 - 200 - 400 = 0
A + B = 900 N
Selecting B as the hinge
B = 0
-A(12) +300(10) +200(4) - 400(4) = 0
- A12 + 3000 + 800 - 1600 = 0

2200
A = 183. 3 N
12
B = 900 - 183.3
= 716.7 N
Selecting A as the hinge
A = 0
- 300(2) - 200(8) + B(12) - 400(16) = 0
- 600 - 1600 + B12 - 6400 = 0

8600
B = 716.7 N
12

A = 900 - 716.7
= 183. 3 N
2.7 A uniform beam of negligible weight is held up by two
supports A and B. Given the distances and forces listed, find
the forces exerted by the supports.

F = 0
A - 60 - 40 + B = 0
A + B = 100
A = 0
= - 60 (3) - 40(9) + B(11) = 0
A B
540
3m 6m 2m B = 49.1 N
11
A = 100 - 49.1 = 50.9 N
60 N 40 N