Electrical Measurement

Techniques
for Nanometrology
Speaker/Author: Richard Timmons, P.Eng.
President, Guildline Instruments
richard.timmons@guildline.com
Tel: 1.613.283.3000; Fax: 1.613.283.6082

2007 Guildline Instruments Limited

 Presentation Overview
DC Electrical Measurements
Nanoscale Range
Low And High Resistances
Low Currents
Low Voltages
Theoretical Frameworks
Techniques And Tips To Improve Accuracy

2007 Guildline Instruments Limited

 Electrical Standards - Resistance
All Electrical Standards Traceable
To National Metrology Institutes
Via17025 Accredited Calibrations
DC Resistance Standards
1 (10-6) to 10 P (10-16)
Uncertainties Range from 0.2 to 5000 ppm
Research Into 0.1 and Smaller Values
Temperature Stabilized Standards
Better Than Traditional Oil Based Standards
Best Uncertainties 0.2 ppm, Annual Drift < 1.5 ppm
Temperature Coefficient < 0.005 ppm
Intrinsic Standard Is Quantum Hall at 12906.4035

2007 Guildline Instruments Limited

 Electrical Standards - Current

Current
Current Shunts 1 Amp to 3000 Amps
Best Uncertainties 1 ppm to 500 ppm
Stable, Linear Performance With Respect to Power
Primary Standard
Current Balance Between 2 Coils of Known Mass
and Dimensions With Uncertainty of 15 ppm
Practical Realization of Ampere
From 1A = 1V / 1 With Better Than .001 ppm
Uncertainties

2007 Guildline Instruments Limited

 Electrical Standards - Voltage

Voltage
Typically 1 V to 10 V
Best Uncertainties < 1.0 ppm
Intrinsic Standard Is Josephine Junction Array
Typical Output In mV to 1V Range With Best
Uncertainties In the 0.01 to 0.001 ppm Range
Current Research on Stacked Josephine Junction
Arrays to Get Higher Voltages
Precision Voltage Dividers Used to Transfer To
Range of Nanovolts to Kilovolts

2007 Guildline Instruments Limited

 Resistance Measurements

Source Current / Measure Voltage

Source Voltage / Measure Current
Low Resistance Measurements
High Resistance Measurements

2007 Guildline Instruments Limited

 Source Current / Measure Voltage
Best for Low Resistance Measurements (< 1k)
Voltage Sources Noisier Than Current Sources For Low
Impedance
The Johnson Voltage Noise At Room Temperature
(270K)

Simplifies to:

k = Boltzmanns Constant, T = Absolute Temperature of Source (K)

B = Noise Bandwidth (Hz), and R = Resistance of the Source ()
As DUT Resistance (R) Decreases Noise Voltage
Decreases

2007 Guildline Instruments Limited

 Source Voltage / Measure Current

Best for High Resistance Measurements

> 10 k
Voltage Sources More Stable When Driving High
Impedance
The Johnson Current Noise At Room
Temperature (270K)

B = Noise Bandwidth (Hz), and R = Resistance of Source ()

As DUT Resistance (R) Increases Noise
Current Decreases

2007 Guildline Instruments Limited

 Comparative Results Sourcing Current
Versus Sourcing Voltage
Summary of 50
Test () Source Source
Measurements Current Voltage
Made at Three Uncertainty Uncertainty
Resistance Values (ppm) (ppm)
Using a Guildline 1k-1k 0.005 0.206

DCC Bridge 10k-10k 0.011 0.003

Sourcing Both 100k-100k 0.217 0.003

Current and
Voltage
2007 Guildline Instruments Limited
 LOW RESISTANCE MEASUREMENT
1k 1k

Source Voltage Source Current

3V, 0.206 ppm Std. Dev. 3.16mA, 0.005 ppm Std. Dev.

At 1k and Lower, Sourcing Current Gives Much

Better Measurements

2007 Guildline Instruments Limited

 MEDIUM RESISTANCE MEASUREMENT
10k 10k

Source Voltage Source Current

10V, 0.003 ppm Std. Dev. 1mA, 0.011ppm Std. Dev.

The 10 k Resistance Level Is the Approximate

Transition Point At Which Both Voltage and Current
Methods Perform Equally Well With Respect to
Measurement Noise

2007 Guildline Instruments Limited

 HIGH RESISTANCE MEASUREMENT
100k 100k

Source Voltage Source Current

32V, 0.003 ppm Std. Dev. 0.32mA, 0.217 ppm Std. Dev.

At 100 k and Higher Sourcing Voltage Gives

Much Better Measurements

2007 Guildline Instruments Limited

 Very Low Resistance Measurements

100 Resistance
Standard (Guildline Serial # 50A 75A 100A
9334A)
68343 99.9871 99.9871 99.9888
Below 1 m
Recommended to 69181 99.9803 99.9810 99.9826
Use Current Range
Extenders
Up to 3000A
Uncertainties of 10-8
ppm or Better

2007 Guildline Instruments Limited

 Very Low Resistance Measurements
(cont)
May Need Low Currents
Saturation Current For Nanoscale Materials Often
Very Low
Self Heating Effects Create Measurement Errors and
Excessive Heat Can Damage DUT
Exception Is Super-Conducting Materials
Current Comparator (CCC) Bridges Can Measure
Down to 10-9 With Low Currents
Thermal Stability Very Important
For Both Resistance Standard and DUT
Stable Air Baths (0.001 C)

2007 Guildline Instruments Limited

Very High Resistance Measurements
DCC bridges measure up to 1 G
Provide Better Uncertainties At and Below
100 M
Best Uncertainties of 0.02 to 0.04 ppm For Multi-
Ratio Bridges
Teraohmmeters (i.e. electrometer based)
Better Above 1G
Measure From 1 M up to 10 P (1016) With
Direct Measurement Uncertainty Ranging
From 0.015% to 5% Across This Range

2007 Guildline Instruments Limited

 Very High Resistance Measurements
(cont)
Teraohmmeter With Resistor Charted Direct Transfer
Multi-Ratio Direct Nominal Uncertainty Reading Uncertainty
Value (ppm)
Transfer Provides ()
(ppm) (ppm)
Best Uncertainties [1]
Transfers (25) To Known 100M 18 150 30.9
1G, 10G and 100G 1G 41 200 33.7
Standards Using
Known 100M 10G 106 600 32.7
Standard (Ratios Up 100G 94 800 46.6
to 1:1000)
Current Research to
1017 Using 1014
Standard.

2007 Guildline Instruments Limited

 Low Current Measurements

Generate or Measure Accurate and

Traceable Low Value Currents
Use Commercial Voltage Standard and
Accurate High Value Resistance Standards
Traceable Reference Currents Down to 50 fA
(10-15 A)
Can be Verified Using a Teraohmeter [2]

2007 Guildline Instruments Limited

 Low Current Measurements
(cont)
Resistor Teraohmmeter Effective Uncertainty
Current
Guildline 6520 9336/9337 Test Voltage
100k 1V 10 A 0.025 %
Teraohmmeter
1M 1V 1 A 0.025 %
With Guildline
10M 10 V 1 A 0.025 %
9336/9337 100M 10 V 100 nA 0.015 %
Resistance 1G 10 V 10 nA 0.02 %
Standards [2] 10G 10 V 1 nA 0.06 %

Uncertainties Can Be 100G 10 V 100 pA 0.08 %

1T 10 V 10 pA 0.1 %
Improved by the
10T 10 V 1 pA 0.2 %
Substitution 100T 10 V 100 fA 0.3 %
Method [1] 1P 10 V 10 fA 1 %
10P 10 V 1 fA 5 %
2007 Guildline Instruments Limited
 Low Voltage Measurements

In Order to Prevent Damage

Unless Material Is Super-Conducting
Nanovolt Meters Can Measure in the
Picovolt (10-12) Range
Johnson Noise (i.e. Motion of Charged
Particles Due to Thermal Energy) Limits
Accuracy of Low Voltage Measurements

2007 Guildline Instruments Limited

 MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES
AND TIPS
Temperature Effects
Digital Filtering
DC Reversal Techniques
Humidity Effects
Electromagnetic Interference (EMI)
Connectors and Leads
Guarding
Grounding
Settling Times
Direct Measurement With No Amplification

2007 Guildline Instruments Limited

 Temperature Effects
1.0 Resistance
Standard (Guildline
9334A)
t/c of 8.5 ppm/C Serial # 21C 23C 25C
(8.5-12 or 8.5 p)
Best Thermometry 68559 1.000048 1.000065 1.000083
Bridges < 0.025 ppm 68560 0.999997 1.000015 1.000032
Ruthenium Oxide Probe
(RTD) For < 1 K 68561 1.00033 1.00034 1.00035
needs 75 k
Stable Air Baths At <
1 mK

2007 Guildline Instruments Limited

 Digital Filtering
Order of Magnitude of Additional Accuracy
Large Number of Tests
Reduces the Bandwidth of the Noise
Ex: Remove Outlier Measurements > k3
( i.e. > 3 x standard deviation)
Dynamically Alter the Sampling Times
Increase If Measurement Stable
If Periodic, Synchronize To a Clock
Telecommunications Industry
Analyze Total Set of Test Results
Post Experiment Analysis With PC

2007 Guildline Instruments Limited

 Digital Filtering
(cont)
Sophisticated Correction Relative
Techniques Include Method Improvement
Profiling Noise, (ppm)
Excitation Effects, Uncorrected 0.000
Systematic Errors, (Baseline
and Other Effects Measurement)
With a Suitable Rounding 0.050
Mathematical Model
Use Weighted
Coefficients Linear 0.061
Ex: Closure Error For a Interpolation
Multi-Ratio Guildline
Logarithmic 0.084
DCC bridge [3]
Weighting

2007 Guildline Instruments Limited

 DC Reversal Techniques
Polarity Reversal
Eliminate Thermal EMFs
Reduces the Effect of White Noise
Increases the Signal-To-Noise Ratio
Can Be Optimized
Faster When Measured Parameter Is
Changing
Slower When Measured Parameter Is Stable

2007 Guildline Instruments Limited

 Humidity Effects
Make Measurements In a Controlled, Low
Humidity Environment
Essential If DUT Absorbs Water
Use High Quality Insulators
Teflon, Polyethylene, Sapphire

2007 Guildline Instruments Limited

 Electromagnetic Interference
(EMI)
EMI Noise In Most Laboratories
Florescent Lights, Cell Phones, Fixed Point Temperature
Furnaces, Electric Motors, AC Electrical Power Lines
Ambient EMI Noise Often Higher Than Nanoscale
Electrical Measurements
Instruments Have Built-in EMI Noise
Display Screens, Microprocessors / Microcontrollers, Power
Supplies
EMI Shielding For Both Measurement Circuitry and DUT
High Quality Air Baths Provide Both EMI Shielding and
Temperature Stability
Power Line Filters

2007 Guildline Instruments Limited

 Connectors and Leads
4 Terminal Mode
Most Accurate Method for Measuring Small Resistances
Corrects For Lead Resistance
Allows Longer Test Leads
Current Supply Compliance Important
Very Low Resistances May Have Greater Voltage Drop
Across Leads and Connectors Then Across Shunt
Condition of Connectors, Cleanliness Important
Poor Measurements From Cracked Terminals, Dirty Contacts,
Moisture Absorbed By Standards and DUTs
Errors As High As 10 ppm
High Resistance Needs Very Good Insulation

2007 Guildline Instruments Limited

 Guarding
Conductor Connected To Low Impedance Point
In Circuit That Is At Nearly Same Potential As
High Impedance Lead Being Guarded
Reduces Leakage Currents and Noise In Test /
Measurement Circuits
Very Important For High Resistance Measurements
Measurement Instruments Should Provide Guarded
Connection Terminal
Reduces Effect Of Shunt Capacitance

2007 Guildline Instruments Limited

 Grounding
Single Point Ground For All Components In Test Setup
Including DUT
Avoids Ground Loop Currents Between Measurement Circuit
and DUT, or Measurement Circuit and Test Fixture
Noisy Power Lines
Largest Contributor Is Typically PCs
NOT Good Measurement Practice To Connect Different
Components Of Test Setup To Different Power Outlets
Power Line Grounds May Not Be At Same Electrical Potential,
Thus Creating Spurious Currents
NOT Good To Connect Instruments Common Ground To
Chassis Ground (i.e. Power Line Ground)

2007 Guildline Instruments Limited

 Settling Times
Needed To Overcome Capacitance
Effects, Self-Heating Effects, Dielectric
Absorption
Present In Measurement Instruments,
Standards, Cabling, DUT
Longer Settling Times Very Important For
Resistances > 100 k

2007 Guildline Instruments Limited

 Direct Measurement With No
Amplification
NOT Recommended To Use Operational
Amplifiers or Other Techniques To
Increase the Measured Signal
Will Proportionally Increase Noise
Operational Amplifiers Or Other Circuitry Will
Introduce Additional Noise
Need Instruments Capable Of Directly
Measuring Electrical Properties At Very
Low Values

2007 Guildline Instruments Limited

 References
[1] Mark Evans and Nick Allen, Guildline Instruments
Limited, Evaluation of a Concept for High Ohms
Transfers at Ratios > 10:1, 2007 Conference
Proceedings of the NCSL International Annual
Workshop and Symposium.
[2] Mark Evans, Application of the Guildline Model
6520 Teraohmmeter for the Nuclear Power Industry,
White Paper, Guildline Instruments Limited.
[3] Mark Evans and Xiangxiao Qiu, P. Eng., Guildline
Instruments Limited, Application of Software Enhanced
DCC Bridge Measurement, 2005 Conference
Proceedings of the NCSL International Annual
Workshop and Symposium.

2007 Guildline Instruments Limited

 Providing Precision
Measurement Solutions
Guildline Instruments Limited

2007 Guildline Instruments Limited