SURVEYING

Introduction
 Introduction to Surveying
Definition:
Surveying is the science and art of
determining the relative positions of points
above, on, or beneath the earths surface
and locating the points in the field.
 The work of the surveyor
consists of 5 phases:
1. Decision Making selecting method, equipment and
final point locations.
2. Fieldwork & Data Collection making measurements
and recording data in the field.
3. Computing & Data Processing preparing
calculations based upon the recorded data to
determine locations in a useable form.
4. Mapping or Data Representation plotting data to
produce a map, plot, or chart in the proper form.
5. Stakeout locating and establishing monuments or
stakes in the proper locations in the field.
 Object of Surveying
Theprimary object of survey is the
preparation of plan of estate or buildings
roads, railways, pipelines, canals, etc. Or to
measure area of field, state, nation.

Objectof geodetic surveying is to determine

precise positions on the surface of the earth
of widely distant points.
 Uses of Surveying
Toprepare a topographical map this shows
the hills, valley, rivers, villages, town, etc, of
a country.

Toprepare a cadastral map showing the

boundaries of fields houses, and other
properties.

Toprepare an engineering map to show

details like roads, railways, canals, etc.
 Uses of Surveying
To prepare military map showing roads and
railways, communication with different parts
of country.

Toprepare contour map and to determine

capacity of a reservoirs and ton find the
best possible route for roads, railways etc.

Toprepare archeological map including

places where ancient relics exist.
Types of Surveying
Classification
 A. Primary Classification or
Primary Division :

1. Plane surveying
2. Geodetic surveying
 1. Plane Surveying
The shape of the earth is spherical. Thus
the surface is obviously curved. But in plane
surveying the curvature of earth is not
taken into account. This is because plane
surveying is carried out over a small area,
so the surface of the earth is considered as
a plane. The degree of accuracy required in
this type of surveying is completely low.
Plane surveying is done on an area of less
than 250 sq.km.
 2. Geodetic surveying
Ingeodetic surveying the curvature of the
earth is taken into consideration. It is
extended over a large area greater than 250
sq.km. The line joining any two points
considered as a curved line. Very refined
methods and instruments are used in this
type of surveying. In this method very high
precision or accuracy is required.
 B. Secondary Classification
Survey can be classified on different bases:

1. Based on instrument:
Chain Survey
Compass survey
Plane Table survey
Theodolite survey
Tacheometric Survey
Photographic survey
 2. Based on methods:

Triangulation Survey

Traverse Survey
 3. Based on Objects:
Geological survey

Mine survey

Archeological Survey

Military survey
 4. Based on nature of field
Land Survey

Marine survey

Astronomical survey
 Other Types of Surveys:
1. Photogrammetry mapping utilizing data obtained
by camera or other sensors carried in airplanes or
satellites.
2. Boundary Surveying establishing property corners,
boundaries, and areas of land parcels.
3. Control Surveying establish a network of horizontal
and vertical monuments that serve as a reference
framework for other survey projects.
4. Engineering Surveying providing points and
elevations for the building Civil Engineering projects.
 Other Types of Surveys:
5. Topographic Surveying collecting data and
preparing maps showing the locations of natural
man-made features and elevations of points of the
ground for multiple uses.
6. Route Surveys topographic and other surveys for
long narrow projects associated with Civil
Engineering projects.
Highways, railroads, pipelines, and transmission lines.
7. Hydrographic Surveying mapping of shorelines and
the bottom of bodies of water.
Also known as bathymetric surveying.
 Brief History of Surveying:
1. Surveying had its beginning in Egypt about 1400 BC
Land along the Nile River was divided for taxation.
Divisions were washed away by annual floods.
ROPE-STRETCHERS Egyptian surveyors were created to
relocate the land divisions (measurements were made with
ropes having knots at unit distances).
Extensive use of surveying in building of Egyptian
monuments
2. Greeks: expanded Egyptian work and developed
Geometry.
Developed one of the earliest surveying instruments
Diopter (a form of level).
 Brief History of Surveying:
3. Romans: developed surveying into a science to
create the Roman roads, aqueducts, and land
division systems.
Surveyors held great power, had schools and a
professional organization
Developed several instruments:
Groma cross instrument used to determine lines and right angles
Libella A frame with a plumb bob used for leveling
Chorobates 20 straight edge with oil in notch for leveling
4. Middle Ages: Land division of Romans continued in
Europe.
Quadrans square brass frame capable of turning angles
up to 90 and has a graduated scale developed by an
Italian named Von Piso.
 Brief History of Surveying:
5. 18th & 19th Century in the New World: the need for
mapping and marking land claims caused extensive
surveying, especially by the English.
1785: United Stated began extensive surveys of public
lands into one mile square sections
30 states surveyed under the U.S. Public Land System
(also called the Rectangular System)
1807: United States Geological Survey founded to
establish an accurate control network and mapping
Famous American Surveyors: George Washington, Thomas
Jefferson, George Rogers Clark, Abe Lincoln and many
more.
 Brief History of Surveying:
6. 20th Century and Beyond: As technology advanced,
population increased, and land value caused
development of licensure for surveyors in all states.
Educational requirements for licensure began in the early
1990s
Capable of electronic distance measurement, positioning
using global positioning systems, construction machine
control, and lidar (scanning) mapping
Involvement in rebuilding of the infrastructure and
geographic information systems (GIS)
Shortage of licensed professionals is projected well into
the 21st century
 Measurement of Distance

Linear measurement is the basis of all surveying and

even though angles may be read precisely, the length
of at least one line in a tract must be measured to
supplement the angles in locating points.

Old surveys were often measured using a Surveyors

Chain. These were literally chains made up of 100
links. Each Chain was 66 feet long. Each link was
0.666 of a foot.
 Units of Measurement
Acre - The (English) acre is a unit of area
equal to 43560 square feet, or 10 square
chains. A square mile is 640 acres. The
Scottish acre is 1.27 English acres.

Chain - Unit of length usually understood to

be Gunter's chain, from the heavy metal chain
of 100 links that was used by surveyors to
measure property bounds.
 Units of Measurement
Hectare - Metric unit of area equal to
10,000 square meters, or 2.471 acres.
Link - Unit of length equal to 1/100 chain
(7.92 inches).
Rood - Unit of area usually equal to 1/4
acre.
Engineer's Chain - A 100 foot chain
containing 100 links of one foot a piece.
 Units of Measurement
Furlong - Unit of length equal to 40 poles
(220 yards).
 Methods of Measuring Distance
Direct Method of Measuring Distance:

1. Pacing: Where approximate result is required,

distance may be determined by pacing. This method
is used for reconnaissance survey, for preparation of
military plans. Also used for approximate checking
distance. The method consists of walking over a line
and counting the number of paces (80cm) the
required distance may be obtained by multiplying
the number of paces by the average length of pace.
 Methods of Measuring Distance
The length of pace varies with the:

Individual, age, height and physical

condition
The nature of the ground (uphill and down
hill)
The slope of the country and
The speed of pacing
 Methods of Measuring Distance
2. Passometer:
It is a pocket instrument. It automatically
records the number of paces. It should be
carried vertically, in waistcoat pocket or
suspended from a button. The mechanism
being operated by motion and strain of the
body.
 Methods of Measuring Distance
3. Pedometer:

It is similar to passometer. But it registers the

distance walked by the persons carrying it. The
distance is read by means of an indicator. It is
fitted with a stud or knob, which when pressed
release indicator to zero, it may be carried in the
same way as the passometer.
 Methods of Measuring Distance
4. Odometer:
It measures the distance approximately. It
can be attached to the wheel of any vehicle,
such as carriage, cart bicycle, etc. It registers
the number of revolution of the wheel.
Knowing the circumference of the wheel, the
distance traversed may be obtained by
multiplying the number of revolutions. By the
circumference of the wheel
 Methods of Measuring Distance
5. Speedometer: The Speedometer of an
automobile may be used to measure distances
approximately. It gives better results than
pacing, provided the route is smooth.
 Methods of Measuring Distance

6. Perambulator: It can measure distance

rapidly. It consist a single wheel provided with
forks and a handle. It is wheeled along the line,
the length of which is desired. The distance
traversed is automatically registered on the dial.
The reading approximates on rough ground.
 Methods of Measuring Distance
7. Judging distance:
This is very rough method of determining
distance. It is used reconnaissance survey.

8. Time Measurement:
Distance is roughly determined by time intervals
of travel. Knowing the average time per km for a
person at walk or a horse, the distance traversed
may be easily obtained.
 Methods of Measuring Distance
9. Chaining: Measuring distance with chain or
rope is the most accurate and common method,
called as chaining. For work of ordinary precision
a chain is used. Where great accuracy is
required, a steel tape is used.
 Measurement of Distance
Taping: applying the known length of a graduated
tape directly to a line a number of times.

2 Problems exist in Taping:

1. Measuring the distance between two existing points
2. Laying out a known distance with only the starting
point in place
 Measurement of Distance
6 Steps of Taping
1. Lining in shortest distance between two points is a
straight line.
2. Applying tension rear chain is anchor and head
chain applies required tension.
3. Plumbing horizontal distance requires tape to be
horizontal.
4. Marking tape lengths each application of the tape
requires marking using chaining pins to obtain total
length.
5. Reading the tape the graduated tape must be read
correctly.
6. Recording the distance the total length must be
reported and recorded correctly.
 Types of Chains and Tapes
Before the ability to make steel rods and bands, sticks
were cut into lengths of 16.5 (Rod) and they were
laid end to end to measure.
Gunters Chain
66 long with 100 link w/each link being 7.92 inches or 0.66
feet long.
Developed by Edmund Gunter in 1600s in England and
made with individual wires with a loop at each end
connected
Chain had between 600-800 wearing surfaces which with
hard use would wear and cause chain to elongate
Measurements were recorded in chains and links
7ch 94.5lk = 7.945 ch = 7.945 X 66/ch = 524.37
1 chain = 4 rods; 80 chains = 1 mile
 Types of Chains and Tapes
Engineers Chain
Same construction as Gunters Chain, but each link is 1.0
long and was used for engineering projects
Surveyors and Engineers Tapes
Made of to 3/8 wide steel tapes in 100; 200; 300
lengths
 Types of Chains and Tapes
Invar Tapes
Made of special nickel steel to reduce length variations due
to temperature changes
The tapes are extremely brittle and expensive
Used most of the time for standard comparison of tapes
Cloth, Fiberglass, and PVC Tapes:
Lower accuracy and stored on reels. Used for measurement
of 0.1 accuracy requirements
Accessories
1. Chaining Pins set of 11, used to mark the tape lengths
2. Hand Level used to determine required plumbing height
3. Plumb Bob used to transfer the mark from the tape to ground
4. Tension Handle used to maintain correct tension on tape
 Taping (Field Process)
1. The line to be taped should be marked at both ends
Keeps measurement on line
Rear chain person should keep the head chain person on
line
1 of line error/100 = 0.01 error in length
2. Applying Tension
Rear chainman is anchor and should hold 100 mark over
point
Tension is applied by head chain person normally 12 to 30 pounds
of pull
Tapes are standardized at 12 lbs., but greater is utilized to
compensate for sag
 Taping (Field Process)
3. Plumbing
One end of tape is raised to maintain a horizontal
measuring plane. ONLY one end is elevated
This allows measurements to be made on uneven ground
If a high spot exists in center, break tape by measuring to the
top and then move forward to complete the distance
 Slope Measurements:
Generally, measurements are made horizontally, but
on even, often man-made slopes the distance can be
measured directly on the slope, but the vertical or
zenith angle must be obtained.
Horizontal Distance = sin Zenith Angle X Slope Distance
Horizontal Distance = cos Vertical Angle X Slope Distance
 Taping Error:
1. Instrumental Error a tape may have different length due to
defect in manufacture or repair or as the result of kinks
2. Natural Error length of tape varies from normal due to
temperature, wind and weight of tape (sag)
3. Personal Error tape person may be careless in setting pins,
reading the tape, or manipulating the equipment
Instrumental and natural error can be corrected mathematically, but
personal error can only be corrected by remeasure.
When a tape is obtained, it should either be standardized or checked
against a standard.
Tapes standardized at National Bureau of Standards in Maryland
Standardized at 68 degrees F and 12 lbs. tension fully supported.
 Tape Error Correction:
1) Measuring between two existing points:
1) If a tape is long, the distance will be short, thus any
correction must be added
2) If tape is short, the distance will be long, thus any
correction must be subtracted
3) If you are setting or establishing a point, the above rule is
reversed.

Generally can correct for tape length,

temperature, tension, and sag, but tension and
sag are negated by increasing tension to
approximately 25 30 lbs.
 Error in Taping:
Tape Length: Correction per foot = Error in 100/100
If tape was assumed to be 100.00 but when standardized
was found to be 100.02 after distance measured at 565.75
then: Correction =(100.02-100.00)/100.00 = 0.0002 error/ft
565.75 X .0002/ = 0.11 correction and based upon rule,
must be added, thus true distance = 565.86
If tape had been 99.98 then correction would be subtracted
and true distance would be 565.64
 Error in Taping:
Temperature Tapes in U.S. are standardized at
68F; the temperature difference above or below that
will change the length of the tape
Tapes have a relatively constant coefficient of expansion of
0.0000065 per unit length per F
CT = 0.0000065(Temp (F)-68) Length
Example: Assume a distance was measured when
temperature was 30F using a 100 tape was 872.54
(68 30) X 0.00000645 X 872.54 = 0.21 error
tape is short, thus distance is long, error must be subtracted
and thus 872.54 0.21 = 872.33

(note: temperature difference is absolute difference)

 Surveying Metric Conversion
1 Survey Foot = 1200 / 3937 meters
1 Meter = 3937 / 1200 Survey Feet
 Transit
Transit is the most universal of
surveying instruments primary use is
for measurement or layout of horizontal
and vertical angles also used to
determine vertical and horizontal
distance by stadia, prolonging straight
lines, and low-order leveling.

3 Components of the Transit

1. Alidade Upper part
2. Horizontal limb Middle part
3. Leveling-head assembly Lower part
 Transit
Alidade (upper part)
Circular cover plate w/2 level vials and is connected
to a solid conical shaft called the inner spindle.
Contains the vernier for the horizontal circle
Also contains frames that support the telescope
called STANDARDS
Contains the vertical circle and its verniers, the
compass box, the telescope and its level vial
Transit
 Transit
Horizontal Limb (middle part)
This is rigidly connected to a hollow conical shaft
called the outer spindle (which holds the inner
spindle)
Also has the upper clamp, which allows the alidade
to be clamped tight
Also contains the horizontal circle
 Transit
Leveling-Head Assembly (lower part)
1. 4 leveling screws
2. Bottom plate that screws into tripod
3. Shifting device that allows transit to move to 3/8
4. ball that allows transit to tilt when being leveled
5. The SPIDER 4-arm piece which holds the outer spindle
6. Lower clamp allows rotation of outer spindle
 Telescope: Similar to that of dumpy level, but
shorter
Parts objective, internal focusing lens, focusing
wheel, X-hairs, & eyepiece

Scales: horizontal plate or circle is usually graduated

into 30 or 20 spaces with graduations from 0 to 360
in both directions
Circles are graduated automatically by machine and then
scanned to ensure accuracy
They are correct to with in 2 of arc
 Verniers
Least count = Lowest # of reading possible
determines accuracy
Least Count = (Value of smallest division on scale)/(#
of divisions on vernier)

Scale Graduation Vernier Divisions Least Count

30 30 1
20 40 30
15 45 20
10 60 10
 Verniers
3 Types of Verniers
1. Direct or single vernier reads only in one direction &
must be set with graduations ahead of zero
2. Double vernier can be read clockwise or
counterclockwiseonly is used at a time
3. Folded vernier avoids a ling vernier plate
of the graduations are placed on each side of the index mark
Use is not justified because it is likely to cause errors
 Verniers
The vernier is always read in the same direction from
zero as the numbering of the circle, i.e. the direction
of the increasing angles
Typical mistakes in reading verniers result from
1.Not using magnifying glass
2.Reading in the wrong direction from zero, or on the wrong
side of a double vernier
3.Failing to determine the least count correctly
4.Omitting 10, 15, 20, 30 when the index is beyond those
marks
 Properties of the Transit
1. Designed to have proper balance between:
Magnification and resolution of the telescope
Least count of the vernier and sensitivity of the plate and telescope
bubbles
2. Average length of sight of 300 assumed in design
3. Specifications of typical 1 gun:
Magnification 18 to 28X
Field of view - 1 to 130
Minimum focus 5 to 7
X-hairs usually are + with stadia lines above and below
The transit is a repeating instrument because angles are measured by
repetition and the total is added on the plate
Advantages of this:
1. Better accuracy obtained through averaging
2. Disclosure of errors by comparing values of the single and multiple readings
 Handling the Transit
Hints on handling and setting-up the transit
Pick up transit by leveling head and standards
When carrying the transit, have telescope locked in position
perpendicular to the leveling head with objective lens down
When setting-up, keep tripod head level and bring plumb
bob to within of point to be set over, then loosen
leveling screws enough to enable you to move transit on
plate, then move transit until it is over the point
 Operation of Transit A

9 Steps
1. Set up over point B and level it. Loosen both motions
2. Set up the plates to read 0 and tighten the upper clamp.
(Upper and lower plates are locked together)
3. Bring Vernier to exactly 0 using upper tangent screw and
magnifying glass.
4. Sight on point A and set vertical X-hair in center of point,
by rotating transit
5. Tighten the lower clamp and entire transit is locked in
6. Set X-hair exactly on BS point A using the lower tangent
screws. At this point the vernier is on 000 and the X-
hairs are on BS
 Operation of Transit A

7. Loosen the upper clamp, turn instrument to right until you

are near pt. C. Tighten the upper clamp
8. Set vertical X-hair exactly on pt. C using the upper tangent
screw.
9. Read on vernier
If repeating , loosen lower motion and again BS on A (using only
lower motion), and then loosen upper motion to allow to
accumulate.
If an instrument is in adjustment, leveled, exactly centered,
and operated by an experienced observer under suitable
conditions, there are only 2 sources for error.
1. Pointing the telescope
2. Reading the plates
 Transit Field Notes

1d Mean
0-90 (4d)4

90-180 (4d + 360) 4

180-270 (4d + 720) 4

270-360 (4d + 1080) 4

Use longest side for backsite

TOTAL STATIONS
 TOTAL STATION SET UP
WHEN TOTAL STATION IS MOVED OR
TRANSPORTED, IT MUST BE IN THE CASE!!!!!!!!
1. ESTABLISH TRIPOD OVER THE POINT.
2. OPEN THE CASE AND REMOVE TOTAL STATION, PLACING IT ON THE HEAD
OF THE TRIPOD AND ATTACH SECURELY WITH CENTER SCREW.
3. CLOSE THE CASE.
4. GRASP TWO TRIPOD LEGS AND LOOK THROUGH THE OPTICAL PLUMB,
ADJUST THE LEGS SO THAT BULLSEYE IS OVER THE POINT (KEEP THE
TRIPOD HEAD AS LEVEL AS POSSIBLE).
5. UTILIZING THE TRIPOD LEG ADJUSTMENTS, LEVEL THE TOTAL STATION
USING THE FISH-EYE BUBBLE.
6. LOOSEN THE CENTER SCREW TO ADJUST THE TOTAL STATION EXACTLY
OVER THE POINT IF NEEDED.
7. COMPLETE LEVELING THE TOTAL STATION USING THE LEVEL VIAL.
8. CHECK TO MAKE SURE YOU ARE STILL ON THE POINT.
 TURNING ANGLES WITH TOTAL STATION
1. SIGHT ON THE BACKSIGHT UTILIZING THE HORIZONTAL ADJUSTMENT
SCREW.
2. ZERO SET THE INSTRUMENT (THIS PROVIDES AN INNITIAL READING OF
0 SECONDS.
3. LOOSEN TANGENT SCREW AND ROTATE INSTRUMENT TO FORESIGHT.
4. TIGHTEN TANGENT SCREW AND BRING CROSS HAIR EXACT ON TARGET
WITH ADJUSTMENT SCREW.
5. READ AND RECORD ANGLE AS DISPLAYED.

TO CLOSE THE HORIZON:

1. SIGHT ON FORESIGHT POINT FROM ABOVE AND ZERO SET INSTRUMENT.
2. ROTATE TO FORMER BACKSIGHT AND ADJUST INSTRUMENT TO EXACT.
3. READ AND RECORD ANGLE AS DISPLAYED.

ANGLE FROM DIRECT AND INDIRECT SHOULD EQUAL 360 DEGREES.

 TOTAL STATION DISTANCE MEASUREMENT
1. POINT THE INSTRUMENT AT A PRISM (WHICH IS VERTICAL OVER
THE POINT.
2. PUSH THE MEASURE BUTTON AND RECORD THE DISTANCE.

YOU CAN MEASURE THE HORIZONTAL DISTANCE OR THE SLOPE

DISTANCE, IT IS IMPORTANT THAT YOU NOTE WHICH IS BEING
COLLECTED.
1. IF YOU ARE MEASURING THE SLOPE DISTANCE, THE ZENITH
ANGLE MUST BE RECORDED TO ALLOW THE HORIZONTAL
DISTANCE TO BE COMPUTED.
2. IF YOU ARE COLLECTING TOPOGRAPHIC DATA WITH ELEVATIONS,
IT IS IMPORTANT THAT THE HEIGHT OF THE INSTRUMENT AND
THE HEIGHT OF THE PRISM BE COLLECTED AND RECORDED.
THIS CAN ALSO BE SOLVED BY SETTING THE PRISM HEIGHT THE SAME AS
THE INSTRUMENT HEIGHT.
 TOTAL STATION RULES
1. NEVER POINT THE INSTRUMENT AT THE SUN, THIS CAN DAMAGE
THE COMPONENTS OF THE INSTRUMENT AS WELL AS CAUSE
IMMEDIATE BLINDNESS.
2. NEVER MOVE OR TRANSPORT THE TOTAL STATION UNLESS IT IS
IN THE CASE PROVIDED.
3. DO NOT ATTEMPT TO ROTATE THE INSTRUMENT UNLESS THE
TANGENT SCREW IS LOOSE.
4. AVOID GETTING THE INSTRUMENT WET, IF IT DOES GET WET,
WIPE IT DOWN AND ALLOW TO DRY IN A SAFE AREA BEFORE
STORAGE.
5. BATTERIES OF THE TOTAL STATION ARE NICAD AND THUS MUST
BE CHARGED REGULARLY. AT LEAST ONCE PER MONTH, THE
BATTERY SHOULD BE CYCLED.
6. CARE SHOULD BE TAKEN AT ALL TIMES, THESE UNITS ARE
EXPENSIVE ($8,000 - $45,000)
 Angles and Determination of
Direction
Angle difference in direction of 2 lines
Another way of explaining is the amount of rotation about a central point
3 kinds of Horizontal angles: Exterior ( to right); Interior; Deflection
To turn an angle you need
A reference line
Direction of turning
Angular distance
Angular Units
Degrees, minutes, seconds (sexagesimal system)
Circle divided into 360 degrees
Each degree divided by 60 minutes
Each minute divided into 60 seconds
Radians
1 radian = 1/2 of a circle = 0.1592*360 = 571744. 8
Grads (Centesimal System) now called Gon
1/400 of a circle or 05400 (100 gon = 90)
 Angles and Determination of
Direction
Angles turned in field must be accurate: 3X least count is
max. error
Check #1 Close horizon when turning
If traverse closes: sum of the interior angles should equal the
sum of
(N-2)X180, N = Number of sides
3 angles = (3-2) 180 = 180
4 angles = (4-2) 180 = 360
8 angles = (8-2) 180 = 1080
25 angles = (25-2) 180 = 4140
If an exterior angle exists, subtract it from 360 to obtain the interior
Angular closure should be checked before leaving the field
 Angles and Determination of
Direction
If angular adjustment does not divide out equally:
1. Do not go to decimal unless instrument reads to decimal
2. Observe field notes for angles with poor closure or where problems
turning angles existed. Apply excess to these angles evenly.
3. If unable to view field notes or no apparent source, generally apply
excess to angles with shortest sides
Bearings/Azimuths
Bearing of a line is the acute horizontal angle between a reference
meridian (North and South) and a line
Azimuth of a line is the horizontal angle measured from the North
meridian clockwise to the line
 Example
M

N
L

Q
Angles and Determination of
Direction
4 Point Comparison

Bearing Azimuth
1. Numeric Value 0-90 0-360

2. Method of Expressing 2 letters & number Number only

3. Direction Clockwise & counterclockwise Clockwise

4. Position of 0 point North and South North

It is always very important to have your field

sketch properly oriented
 Angles and Determination of
Direction
Rectangular Coordinates
Totally based on computation of right triangle
North South Movement = Latitude = D X cos A
East West Movement = Departure = D X sin A
Latitude running North are +, South are
Departure running East are +, West are
 Angles and Determination of
Direction
Basic Procedure
1. Determine Latitude and Departure
2. Sum Lat. and Departure to calc. closure
3. Obtain balanced Lat. and Dept. (Compass Rule)
4. Determine coordinates
5. Once rectangular coordinates are known on point, their
exact location is known with respect to all other points in
the network
 Example
B

D
 Angles and Determination of
Direction
Balancing Methods
1. Compass Rule: (Bowditch) Used when accuracy of and length
measurement is equal
(Error Lat./Perimeter length) X Distance = Latitude Correction
(Error Dept./Perimeter length) X Distance = Departure Correction
2. Transit Rule: Used if angles are more accurate than distances (more
accurate direction)
Correction Latitude (Side) = (Lat. Side/Sum all Lat.) X Lat. error
Correction Departure (Side) = (Dept. Side/Sum all Dept.) X Dept. error
3. Crandall Method: Used when larger random error exists in linear
measurements that angular. Directional adjustments from balancing
are held fixed and distances are balanced by a weighted least squares
procedure
4. Least Squares: Based on the theory of probability. Angular and linear
adjustments are made simultaneously. Hand methods are long and
complex not often done. Computer adjustment through existing
software make it feasible, which is why it is often used today
 Area, Inverse, Intersection
Once rectangular coordinates are established on all
points, the relationship to all other points is known.
You can:
1. Determine area of all or any portion
2. Determine length and direction between any 2 points
3. Locate new points by intersection
 Area, Inverse, Intersection
Area: Method is area by cross multiplication
Using example from traverse lecture:

NA X EB + NB X EC + NC X ED + ND X EE + NE X EF + NF X EA = Sum N
EA X NB + EB X NC + EC X ND + ED X NE + EE X NF + EF X NA = Sum E

Difference in Sums/2 = Square feet

A 10000.0000 5000.0000
Square feet/43560 = Acres
B 10326.7981 5356.3614
C 9938.7277 5298.7122 Sum N = 294,119,678.8
D 9448.9156 4560.3990 Sum E = 293,663,353.6
E 9854.7405 4760.8417
456,325.2 / 2 = 228,162.6 ft2 = 5.24 Ac
F 10070.8565 4583.9559
A 10000.0000 5000.0000
 Area, Inverse, Intersection
Example: Determine Area of A, D, E, F, A

A 10000.0000 5000.0000
D 9448.9156 4560.3990
E 9854.7405 4760.8417
F 10070.8565 4583.9559
A 10000.0000 5000.0000

N = 186,116,759.8
E = 185,971,439.3

145,320.5 / 2 = 72,660.25 ft2 = 1.67 Ac

 Area, Inverse, Intersection
Inverse: With known coordinates of any two points on a
system, you find the distance and direction between the two

C 9938.7277 5298.7122
D 9448.9156 4560.3990
489.8121 738.3132

To find the Inverse between 2 Points

1. Find difference in N & E of coordinates
2. Plot
Use point you are going from 1st
Plot longest side 1st
3. Determine length using Pythagorean (a2 + b2 = c2)
4. Determine reference direction
5. Determine local using tan A = a/b
6. Determine line direction
 Area, Inverse, Intersection
Example: Determine direction and distance D-A

D 9448.9156 4560.3990
A 10000.0000 5000.0000
551.0844 439.6010
 Area, Inverse, Intersection
Intersection: Determination of unknown point
location with directions from two points known
1. Determine difference in coordinates
2. Plot points and line projections
3. Set up dual formulas (as Latitude and Departure)
4. Solve for length
5. Compute coordinate as sideshot

C 9938.7277 5298.7122
D 9448.9156 4560.3990
489.8121 738.3132
 Area, Inverse, Intersection
Example: What are the coordinates of the point of
intersection of line C-F and D-A.
Azimuth D-A = 383446.
Coordinates of D: N = 9448.9156, E = 4560.3990

C 9938.7277 5298.7122
F 10070.8565 4583.9559
132.1288 714.7563
 Horizontal and Vertical Curves
Horizontal curves are the basis for most Right of Ways:
Go through formulas
Angle at PC and PT are always 90
Given any 2 elements T, L, C, R, D; the remainder can be completed
Example: Horizontal curve, PC STA 201+00
D = 361500
R = 1200.00
T=
L=
C=
Seg =
PI STA =
PT STA =
 Horizontal and Vertical Curves
Vertical Curves Two major methods used to calculate
vertical curves: Tangent offset and Equation of Parabola
Information needed:
1. Grade or slope on each side of curve
2. Elevation and station of PVI
3. Curve length (Horizontal distance PVC PVT)
 Horizontal and Vertical Curves
Tangent Offset Method
Procedure:
1. Compute the elevation of the PVC and PVT
2. Compute the elevation of Chord midpoint
3. Compute offset to curve at midpoint
4. Determine total number of stations covered
5. Determine tangent elevations at stations
6. Compute curve offset at stations
7. Combine data and determine vertical curve elevations
 Horizontal and Vertical Curves
Equation of Parabola Method
Equation: r = g2 - g1 / L
g1 = initial grade
r = change in grade/sta.
g2 = final grade
L = length of curve in stations
Procedure:
1. Compute PVC and PVT elevations
2. Calculate total change in grade/station
3. Insert data to chart and compute final curve elevations

To find the elevation at the high point or low point,

find the station at which it fall and include that -g1
station in the elevation computations xpt =
r
The equation gives the distance from the PVC in stations
 Leveling
Leveling is the determination of the elevation of a point or
difference between points referenced to some datum

Terms:
1. Datum any level surface to which elevations are referenced
2. Mean Sea Level (MSL) the average height of the surface of the sea for
all stages of the tide over a 19 year period at 26 tide stations along
Pacific, Atlantic and Gulf
3. National Geodetic Vertical Datum nationwide reference surface for
elevations throughout the U.S. made available by National Geodetic
Survey (NGS), based on 1929 adjustment.
4. Benchmark relatively permanent object bearing a marked point whose
elevation above or below an adopted datum.
 Leveling
Most often Mean Sea Level is used
MSL varies along the coasts
Pacific is almost 2 higher than Atlantic and Gulf
U.S.System: National Geodetic Vertical Datum of
1929
Has been used as reference for extensive network of BMs
BMs are periodically adjusted as to elevation
Best to check with USGS or NGS for current elevation of a BM and
also best to check between two known BMs to verify elevation
difference.
 Leveling
The level surface parallels the curvature of the earth a level
line is a curved line, normal () at all points to plumbline
Line of sight is only normal at point of instrument
A line with a sight distance of 1 mile using the earths radius as 3959
mile, curvature change is 0.667 feet.

Refraction of line of sight of level is downward by a small amount

The combined curvature & refraction amounts for short distances
(normal sight dist. for levels) are:
100 = 0.0002
200 = 0.0008 Value is small for most instances
300 = 0.0019 can be neglected
500 = 0.0052
 Leveling
Most common leveling instrument today is the Automatic or
Self-leveling level has an internal compensator that
automatically provides a horizontal line of sight and
maintains this through gravity (prism hanging on pendulum)
Differential Leveling: (Spirit Leveling) Most common type
today
Determine the difference in elevation using a horizontal line of sight
and readings on graduated rod
Circuit must be closed on BM of origin or on BM of equal accuracy
Process:
1. Reading on point of known elevation (BS)
2. BS reading + BM elevation = HI
3. Reading on point of unknown elevation (FS)
4. HI FS = elevation of new point
 Leveling
Systematic Error in Leveling
1. Inclination of line of sight due to curvature of earth and
refraction generally very minimal due to short sights
2. Inclination due to maladjustment of instrument
Both can be alleviated by equalizing length of BS and FS legs
3. Changes in scale of rod due to temperature
Usually ignored except in very precise work
Would use same process as tape correction
4. Rod not held plumb
Minimized by carefully plumbing the rod or more commonly known as
Rocking the Rod and taking the lowest reading
 Leveling
Peg Test
1. Set 2 marks at 300 apart, also mark center point in a relatively
flat area
2. Set level at midpoint and take readings at each end
3. Determine difference in readings (difference in elevation)
4. Move level to one end and setup so that level is just in front of
rod on point
5. Read rod by looking backward through scope (X-hair not
visible), hold pencil on rod to determine reading
6. Read rod at other end in normal manner
7. Difference in readings should equal #3
8. If values are not equal, there is error
Most instruments have adjustment screws
Adjust and repeat test as a check
 Seven Basic Rules of
Differential Leveling
1. Balance length of BS and FS (300 max)
2. Make sure gun is level and pendulum free
3. Turn through all BMs
4. Give complete description of BMs and TBMs
5. Have rod rocked
6. Make sure turning points are solid
7. Close all circuits on BM of same degree of accuracy
 Other Random Errors
1. Incorrect rod reading most common viewing foot
number above and recording it
2. Parallax having the X-hair not properly focused
3. Heat Waves limit shot lengths
 Field Notes
STA BS HI FS ELEV

Sum BS Sum FS = Difference of Elevation

 Closure Error
Difference in measured elevation and know elevation
Correction factor = closure / # turns
Error = 0.09
Turns = 12 Correction = 0.0075 / turn

IfTBMs set, break circuit into sections

Figure correction factor the same
Figure correction by taking CF X # turns in section
 Precise Leveling
Precise Leveling Accuracy obtained by quality of instruments
and care taken in the field
High quality automatic levels are utilized
Level rods are equipped with rod level, rod shoe (to allow
better setting on BMs); scale (on rod) is made of invar steel
(not affected by temp generally called Invar Rod)
Reading either taken by optical micrometer or a process called
3-wire leveling is used (all 3 wire are read and averaged)
Optical micrometer: line of sight deflected by turning micrometer screw
to read subdivision on rod.
Rod division is read as normal & then fractional reading taken from
micrometer screw, thus on normal rod readings to 0.0001 are possible
 Topographic Surveying
Topographic surveying is the process of determining
the positions, on the earths surface, of the natural,
and artificial features of a given locality and of
determining the configuration of the terrain.
Planimetry location of features
Topography configuration of the ground
Bothproduce a topographic map which shows the true distance
between objects & their elevations above a given datum
Topos can be done by field methods, or by photogrammetric
methods. (Photo also requires some field work)
Topo map is 1st step in a construction project
 Topographic Surveying
Scaleand accuracy: Both depend on what used for
Method of Representing:
Most common is Contour Line Imaginary line on surface of
the earth passing through points that have equal elevation
Contour Interval Vertical distance between lines
Topo map with contour lines shows elevation of points on ground &
shapes of topographic features (hills, etc.)
USGS Topo 10 or 20 contour intercal
Subdivision 2 or 4

Index Contour every 5th contour drawn heavier on maps

Slopes & X-sections can be obtained from contours
 Topographic Surveying
Interpolating can find elevation of any point or find
contour line with known elevation of point
Contour lines that close represent either a hill or depression
and can be represented as:

Marks are called hatchures (used most in depressions)

 Characteristics of Contours
1. Each contour must close upon itself with within a
map or outside its borders a contour line cannot
end on a map except at the edge
2. Contours do not cross or meet except in caves, cliffs
& vertical walls where they can meet
3. Contour lines crossing streams form Vs pointing
upstream
4. Contour lines crossing a ridge form Us pointing down
the ridge
5. Contour lines tend to parallel streams
 Characteristics of Contours
6. Contour lines are uniformly spaced on uniform slopes
7. Horizontal spacing between contour lines indicated
steepness of slope on ground
8. Contours are generally perpendicular to direction of
maximum slope
9. Contours can never branch into 2 contours of the
same elevation
 Field Methods of Topos
Factors That Influence Method
1. Scale of map
2. Contour interval
3. Type of terrain
4. Nature of project
5. Equipment available
6. Required accuracy
7. Existing control
8. Extent of area to be mapped
 Field Methods of Topos
Methods:
1. Cross section railroad of highway
2. Trace contour drainage or impoundments
3. Grid small areas
4. Controlling point large area, plane table
5. Theodolite & EDM - radial
 Field Methods of Topos
Cross Section Method (Plus Offset):
Equipment used: Transit, tape, and level
1. Establish horizontal control traverse between
control points stakes set at cross section intervals
2. Run profile of traverse line
3. Take cross section
4. Locate planimetric features from traverse line
 Field Methods of Topos
Trace Contour:
1. Contour is by traverse
2. Establish elevation of each station
3. Contour elevation established and is then followed by
rodperson
4. Contour elevation is marked, then tied to traverse line
by plus-offset
Most accurate and expensive work
Elevation of reservoir water line
2 transit use
 Field Methods of Topos
Grid Method:
1. Establish baselines
2. Estimate grid of uniform size smaller grid = more
accurate
3. Number grid
4. Shoot elevation at each point
5. Tie existing objects to grid points
 Field Methods of Topos
Controlling Point Method: (old and sketched in field)
1. Determine position & elevation of pre-selected
control points
2. Depends greatly on experience & judgment of people
doing work
3. Required traverse of area (CPs)
4. Locations are made & elevations obtained along
control points then intermittent topo sketched in
 Field Methods of Topos
Theodolite & EDM (Radial)
Replaces tacheometry (stadia)
1. Establish control points (horizontal and elevation)
2. Shoot locations and turn vertical angles
3. Used for large areas
 Field Methods of Topos
Common mistakes in topo surveys:
1. Improper selection of contour interval
2. Unsatisfactory equipment or field method for the
particular survey and terrain conditions
3. Insufficient horizontal and vertical control of suitable
precision
4. Omission of some topographic details
 Mine Surveying
Points are on roof of mine
Reasons needed
1. Location in respect to boundaries
2. Location in respect to other shafts
3. Accurate maps (above and below ground)
4. Quantities
Equipment and Terms
Spad Beams that you hold plumb bob from
Bracket Mounting instrument from timber supports
Trivet Tripod thats about 1 tall
Gyroscope Locate north
Laser vertical collimator located point at top of vertical shaft platform
Plumb shaft Using piano wire then wiggle in at bottom
 Global Positioning Systems (GPS)
Developed in early 1980 s (Dept. of Defense)
Made up of 26 satellites (24 functioning & 2 spares)
Each satellite is 20,000 km high (off Earths surface)
Each satellite is in a fixed position
Minimum of 3 satellites needed, but 4-5 preferred
Need satellites at least 15 above horizon
Locate positions on Earth by distance-distance intersection
Need 2-3 receivers ($80-$100K per system)
Most accurate with double occupancy (no other checks)
Differential GPS one receiver on known point, other receiver
on unknowns
 Global Positioning Systems (GPS)
Biggest advantage
Distance and direction in-between 2 points without
being seen
Downfalls/Limitations of GPS
Multipath bouncing off of walls of buildings
Blocked signals clouds, trees, etc.
Sunspot defraction from atmosphere
DOP (Delusion of Position) bad satellite position
Set up error not set up exactly over point (human
error most common)
 Global Positioning Systems (GPS)
Methods
Static observation time is at least an hour
Ideally set points in triangular fashion
Accuracy 1/10 million
RTK (Real Time Kinematic) stand for 30-60 seconds
minimum
Base receivers transmission, does corrections, sends
corrections to receivers
Limitations limitation of transmitter signal
 Geographic Information Systems
(GIS)
GIS are computer programs that allow users to store,
retrieve, manipulate, analyze and display spatial data
Spatial Data (Geographic data) any data that
represents information about the Earth
GIS components
Recent definitions of GIS suggest that is consists of:
1. Hardware (computer and operating system)
2. Software Geographic/Spatial

3. Data Non-Geographic/Aspatial/Attribute
4. Human Operators and Institutional Infrastructure
 GIS Data Structures
Vector Made up of points, lines, and polygons
 GIS Data Structures
Raster (Grids) Made up of pixels of computer screen
 GIS Data Structures
DEM (Digital Elevation Model) Digital terrain
representation technique, where elevation values are
stored in raster cells
 Future of Surveying
Major advances in future
Remote Sensing (Government and Military)
Arial Photographs

Design Professions
Every 10 years, must justify to Legislature that need for our
license exists
Surveyor have ULTIMATE liability
Standards Laws
Continuing Education Enough points every 2 years