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11 State
01 State
A cos 2f c t
4
11
A cos 2f c t
3
s t
01
4
3
A cos 2f c t
00 State 10 State 00
4
A cos 2f c t
10
Phase of Carrier: /4, 2/4, 5/4, 7/4 4
QPSK - 4 different waveforms
1.5 cos+sin 1.5 -cos+sin
1 1
0.5 11 0.5 01
0 0
-0.5 -0.5
-1 -1
-1.50 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 -1.50 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
1.5 1.5
1 1 00
10
0.5 0.5
cos-sin -cos-sin
0 0
-0.5 -0.5
-1 -1
-1.50 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 -1.50 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
QPSK Example
QPSK Virtue of pulse shaping
Types of QPSK
Types of QPSK
Conventional QPSK has transitions through zero (i.e 180 phase
transition). Highly linear amplifier required.
In offset QPSK, the transitions on the I and Q channels are staggered.
Phase transitions are therefore limited to 90.
In /4 QPSK the set of constellation points are toggled each symbol, so
transitions through zero cannot occur. This scheme produces the lowest
envelope variations.
All QPSK schemes require linear power amplifiers.
Offset QPSK waveforms
Offset OQPSK
QPSK can have 180 degree jump, amplitude fluctuation
By offsetting the timing of the odd and even bits by one bit-period, or half
a symbol-period, the in-phase and quadrature components will never
change at the same time.
90 degree jump
/4 QPSK signaling
135 degree
Non-coherent
detection
/4 QPSK transmitter
/4 QPSK transmitter
Where
/4 QPSK transmitter
/4 QPSK waveform is given by
/4 QPSK Detection Techniques
Baseband Differential detection
IF Differential detection
FM Discriminator detection
I Baseband Differential detection
Baseband Differential detection
If half sinusoid pulses are used instead of rectangular pulses then MSK for
N-bit stream can be represented as
MSK is a special form of CPFSK and rewritting FSK eqn. using trignometric
identities
0.8
Normalized Amplitude --->
0.6
0.4
0.2
-0.2
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6
Normalized Frequency (fT) --->
Error performance in fading channels
Major advantages of OFDM systems
High spectral efficiency due to nearly rectangular frequency
spectrum for high numbers of sub-carriers.
Simple digital realization by using the FFT operation.
Less complex receivers due to the avoidance of ISI with a
sufficiently long cyclic prefix.
Different modulation schemes can be used on individual sub-
carriers which are adapted to the transmission conditions on
each sub-carrier.
Transceiver structure of OFDM (analog)
Transceiver structure of OFDM (using IFFT)
Principle of cyclic prefix
Principle of cyclic prefix
The Cyclic Prefix or Guard Interval is a periodic extension of the last part of
an OFDM symbol that is added to the front of the symbol in the
transmitter, and is removed at the receiver before demodulation
The cyclic prefix has to two important benefits
The cyclic prefix acts as a guard interval. It eliminates the inter
symbol interference from the previous symbol.
It acts as a repetition of the end of the symbol thus allowing the
linear convolution of a frequency selective multipath channel to be
modeled as circular convolution which in turn maybe transformed to the
frequency domain using a discrete fourier transform. This approach allows
for simple frequency domain processing such as channel estimation and
equalization.
Cyclic prefix
Block diagram of OFDM transmission with cyclic prefix
and one tap equalization
Drawback of OFDM
OFDM signals with high peak-to-average power ratio (PAPR)
require highly linear amplifiers. Otherwise, performance
degradation occurs and out-of-band power will be enhanced.
More sensitive to Doppler spread than single-carrier
modulated systems.
Phase noise caused by the imperfections of the transmitter
and receiver oscillators influences the system performance.
Accurate frequency and time synchronization is required.
Loss in spectral efficiency due to cyclic prefix (CP)
Windowing
Windowing is a popular method of reducing the spectral side
lobes of OFDM.
A popular window usually used for this purpose in the raised
cosine (RC) window, because of its tapered and smooth edges.
Peak to average power ratio(PAPR)
PAPR is generally used to characterize the envelope fluctuation of the OFDM .
the peak value of the system can be very high as compared to the average of the
whole system. This ratio of the peak to average power value is termed as Peak-to-
Average Power Ratio.
High Peak-to-Average Power Ratio has been recognized as one of the major
practical problem involving OFDM modulation.
High PAPR results from the nature of the modulation itself where multiple
subcarriers are added together to form the signal to be transmitted.
When N sinusoids add, the peak magnitude would have a value of N, where the
average might be quite low due to the destructive interference between the
sinusoids.
High PAPR signals are usually undesirable for it usually strains the analog circuitry.
High PAPR signals would require a large range of dynamic linearity from the analog
circuits which usually results in expensive devices and high power consumption
with lower efficiency (for e.g. power amplifier has to operate with larger back-off
to maintain linearity).