Biopotential

Electrodes
(Ch. 5)
 Electrode Electrolyte Interface
Electrode Electrolyte (neutral charge)
C C+, A- in solution
Current flow
C C+
e- C
A- C+
e-
A-

C+ : Cation A- : Anion e- : electron

Fairly common electrode materials: Pt, Carbon, , Au, Ag,

Electrode metal is use in conjunction with salt, e.g. Ag-AgCl, Pt-Pt
black, or polymer coats (e.g. Nafion, to improve selectivity)
 Electrode Electrolyte Interface
General Ionic Equations

a) C C n ne
b) Am A me
a) If electrode has same material as cation, then this material gets
oxidized and enters the electrolyte as a cation and electrons remain
at the electrode and flow in the external circuit.

b) If anion can be oxidized at the electrode to form a neutral atom,

one or two electrons are given to the electrode.

The dominating reaction can be inferred from the following :

Current flow from electrode to electrolyte : Oxidation (Loss of e-)
Current flow from electrolyte to electrode : Reduction (Gain of e-)
 Half Cell Potential
A characteristic potential difference established by the electrode and its
surrounding electrolyte which depends on the metal, concentration of ions
in solution and temperature (and some second order factors) .

Half cell potential cannot be measured without a second electrode.

The half cell potential of the standard hydrogen electrode has been arbitrarily
set to zero. Other half cell potentials are expressed as a potential difference
with this electrode.

Reason for Half Cell Potential : Charge Separation at Interface

Oxidation or reduction reactions at the electrode-electrolyte interface
lead to a double-charge layer, similar to that which exists along
electrically active biological cell membranes.
 Measuring Half Cell Potential

Note: Electrode material is metal + salt or polymer selective membrane

Some half cell potentials

Standard Hydrogen electrode

Note: Ag-AgCl has low

junction potential & it is
also very stable -> hence
used in ECG electrodes!
 Polarization
If there is a current between the electrode and electrolyte, the
observed half cell potential is often altered due to polarization.

Overpotential
Difference between observed and zero-current half cell potentials

Resistance
Current changes resistance
of electrolyte and thus,
a voltage drop results.
Activation
Concentration
The activation energy
Changes in distribution
barrier depends on the
of ions at the electrode-
direction of current and
electrolyte interface
determines kinetics

V p VR VC VA
Note: Polarization and impedance of the electrode are two of the
most important electrode properties to consider.
 Nernst Equation
When two aqueous ionic solutions of different concentration are
separated by an ion-selective semi-permeable membrane, an electric
potential exists across the membrane.
For the general oxidation-reduction reaction
A B C D ne Note: interested
in ionic activity
The Nernst equation for half cell potential is at the electrode
RT a
(but note temp
C aD
EE
0
ln dependence
nF a A aB
where E0 : Standard Half Cell Potential E : Half Cell Potential
a : Ionic Activity (generally same as concentration)
n : Number of valence electrons involved
 Polarizable and Non-Polarizable
Electrodes
Use for
Perfectly Polarizable Electrodes recording
These are electrodes in which no actual charge crosses the electrode-
electrolyte interface when a current is applied. The current across the
interface is a displacement current and the electrode behaves like a
capacitor. Example : Ag/AgCl Electrode
Use for
Perfectly Non-Polarizable Electrode stimulation
These are electrodes where current passes freely across the electrode-
electrolyte interface, requiring no energy to make the transition. These
electrodes see no overpotentials. Example : Platinum electrode

Example: Ag-AgCl is used in recording while Pt is use in stimulation

 Ag/AgCl Electrode
Relevant ionic equations
Ag Ag e
Ag Cl AgCl

Cl2 Governing Nernst Equation

Solubility
Ag Cl
+ -
RT K s product of AgCl
E E Ag
0
ln
nF aCl

Fabrication of Ag/AgCl electrodes

1. Electrolytic deposition of AgCl
2. Sintering process forming pellet electrodes
Equivalent Circuit
Cd : capacitance of electrode-eletrolyte interface
Rd : resistance of electrode-eletrolyte interface
Rs : resistance of electrode lead wire
Ecell : cell potential for electrode

Corner frequency
Rd+Rs

Rs

Frequency Response
 Electrode Skin Interface
Ehe

Electrode Cd Rd Alter skin

transport (or
Sweat glands deliver drugs)
Gel Rs and ducts
100
by:

Ese EP Pores
produced by
Stratum Corneum laser,
Epidermis Ce Re CP RP
ultrasound or
by
100 Dermis and iontophoresis

subcutaneous layer
Ru

Nerve Skin impedance for 1cm2 patch:

endings Capillary
200k @1Hz
200 @ 1MHz
 Motion Artifact
Why
When the electrode moves with respect to the electrolyte, the
distribution of the double layer of charge on polarizable electrode
interface changes. This changes the half cell potential temporarily.

What
If a pair of electrodes is in an electrolyte and one moves with
respect to the other, a potential difference appears across the
electrodes known as the motion artifact. This is a source of
noise and interference in biopotential measurements

Motion artifact is minimal for non-polarizable electrodes

Body Surface Recording Electrodes
Electrode metal

Electrolyte

Think of the
1. Metal Plate Electrodes construction of
(historic) electrosurgical
electrode
2. Suction Electrodes
And, how does
(historic interest) electro-surgery
work?
3. Floating Electrodes
4. Flexible Electrodes
 Commonly Used Biopotential
Electrodes
Metal plate electrodes
Large surface: Ancient,
therefore still used, ECG
Metal disk with stainless steel;
platinum or gold coated
EMG, EEG
smaller diameters
motion artifacts
Disposable foam-pad: Cheap!
(a) Metal-plate electrode used for application to limbs.
(b) Metal-disk electrode applied with surgical tape.
(c)Disposable foam-pad electrodes, often used with ECG
 Commonly Used Biopotential
Electrodes
Suction electrodes
- No straps or adhesives
required
- precordial (chest) ECG
- can only be used for short
periods
Floating electrodes
- metal disk is recessed
- swimming in the electrolyte gel
- not in contact with the skin
- reduces motion artifact
Suction Electrode
Commonly Used Biopotential
Electrodes Insulating
Metal disk

package

Double-sided
Adhesive-tape
ring Electrolyte gel
in recess
(a) (b)
Reusable
Snap coated with Ag-AgCl External snap
Gel-coated sponge
Plastic cup Plastic disk Disposable

Tack Dead cellular material

Foam pad
Capillary loops Germinating layer
(c)

Floating Electrodes
 Commonly Used Biopotential
Electrodes
Flexible electrodes
- Body contours are often
irregular
- Regularly shaped rigid
electrodes
may not always work.
- Special case : infants
- Material :
- Polymer or nylon with silver
- Carbon filled silicon rubber(a) Carbon-filled silicone rubber electrode.
(Mylar film) (b) Flexible thin-film neonatal electrode.
(c) Cross-sectional view of the thin-film
electrode in (b).
 Internal Electrodes
Needle and wire electrodes for
percutaneous measurement of
biopotentials

(a) Insulated needle electrode.

(b) Coaxial needle electrode.
(c) Bipolar coaxial electrode.
(d) Fine-wire electrode connected
to hypodermic needle, before
being inserted.
(e) Cross-sectional view of skin
and muscle, showing coiled
fine-wire electrode in place.

The latest: BION implanted electrode for muscle recording/stimulation

Alfred E. Mann Foundation
 Fetal ECG Electrodes

Electrodes for detecting fetal electrocardiogram during labor, by means

of intracutaneous needles (a) Suction electrode. (b) Cross-sectional view of
suction electrode in place, showing penetration of probe through epidermis.
(c) Helical electrode, which is attached to fetal skin by corkscrew type action.
 Electrode Arrays
Ag/AgCl electrodes
Contacts
Insulated leads
Contacts
Ag/AgCl electrodes

Insulated leads Base

(a)

Exposed tip Tines Base

(b)

Examples of microfabricated electrode arrays.

(a) One-dimensional plunge electrode array,
(b) Two-dimensional array, and
Base (c) Three-dimensional array

(c)
 Microelectrodes
Why
Measure potential difference across cell membrane

Requirements
Small enough to be placed into cell Intracellular
Strong enough to penetrate cell membrane
Extracellular
Typical tip diameter: 0.05 10 microns
Types
Solid metal -> Tungsten microelectrodes
Supported metal (metal contained within/outside glass needle)
Glass micropipette -> with Ag-AgCl electrode metal
 Metal Microelectrodes
C

Microns!

R
Extracellular recording typically in brain where you
are interested in recording the firing of neurons
(spikes).

Use metal electrode+insulation -> goes to high

impedance amplifiernegative capacitance amplifier!
Metal Supported Microelectrodes

(a) Metal inside glass (b) Glass inside metal

 Ag-AgCl wire+3M

Glass Micropipette
KCl has very low
junction potential
and hence very
heat accurate for dc
measurements (e.g.
pull action potential)

A glass micropipet electrode filled

with an electrolytic solution
(a) Section of fine-bore glass
capillary.
(b) Capillary narrowed through
heating and stretching.
Fill with
intracellular fluid (c) Final structure of glass-pipet
or 3M KCl microelectrode.

Intracellular recording typically for recording from cells, such as

cardiac myocyte
Need high impedance amplifiernegative capacitance amplifier!
 Electrical Properties of
Microelectrodes
Metal Microelectrode

Metal microelectrode with tip placed

within cell
Use metal electrode+insulation -> goes to high impedance Equivalent circuits
amplifiernegative capacitance amplifier!
 Electrical Properties of Glass
Intracellular Microelectrodes
Glass Micropipette Microelectrode
 Stimulating Electrodes
Features
Cannot be modeled as a series resistance and capacitance
(there is no single useful model)
The body/electrode has a highly nonlinear response to
stimulation Platinum electrodes:
Large currents can cause Applications: neural
Cavitation stimulation
Cell damage
Heating Modern day Pt-Ir and other exotic
Types of stimulating electrodes metal combinations to reduce
polarization, improve conductance
1. Pacing and long life/biocompatibility
2. Ablation
3. Defibrillation Steel electrodes for
pacemakers and defibrillators
 Intraocular Stimulation
Electrodes
Reference : Lutz Hesse, Thomas Schanze, Marcus Wilms and Marcus Eger, Implantation of retina stimulation
electrodes and recording of electrical stimulation responses in the visual cortex of the cat, Graefes Arch Clin Exp
Ophthalmol (2000) 238:840845
In vivo neural microsystems (FIBE): challenge
In vivo neural microsystems (FIBE): biocompatibility - variant
In vivo neural microsystems (FIBE): state of the art
Introduction: neural microsystems

Instrumentation for
neurophysiology

Neural MEMS -
Microsystems Microsystems
Neural
microelectrodes
Introduction: types of neural microsystems applications

External Subdural Micro-

Microsensors
electrodes electrodes electrodes

Human
level

In vivo
applications
Animal
level

Tissue
slice
level In vitro
applications
Cellular
level

 Microelectronic technology
for Microelectrodes Bonding pads

SiO2 insulated Insulated

Au probes lead vias
Exposed
electrodes

Silicon probe

Si substrate
Exposed tips
(a) Beam-lead multiple electrode . (b) Multielectrode silicon probe

Miniature
insulating Channels Silicon chip
chamber Hole
Lead via

Silicon probe
Contact
Electrode metal film
(c) Multiple-chamber electrode (d)
Peripheral-nerve electrode
Different types of microelectrodes fabricated using microfabrication/MEMS
technology
Michigan Probes for Neural
Recordings
 Neural Recording
Microelectrodes

Reference :
http://www.acreo.se/acreo-rd/IMAGES/PUBLICATIONS/PROCEEDINGS/ABSTRACT-
KINDLUNDH.PDF
In vivo neural microsystems: 3 examples

University of Michigan
Smart comb-shape microelectrode arrays for
brain stimulation and recording

University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

High-density comb-shape metal microelectrode
arrays for recording

Fraunhofer Institute of Biomedical (FIBE)

Engineering
Retina implant
 Multi-electrode Neural
Recording

Reference :
http://www.cyberkineticsinc.com/technology.htm

Reference :
http://www.nottingham.ac.uk/neuronal-networks/mmep.htm
WPIs Nitric Oxide
Nanosensor
 Nitric Oxide Sensor
Developed at Dr.Thakors Lab, BME, JHU
Electrochemical detection of NO

Left: Schematic of the 16-electrode sensor array. Right: Close-up of a

single site. The underlying metal is Au and appears reddish under the
photoresist. The dark layer is C (300m-x-300m)
 A

B
F

C G

D H

Cartoon of the fabrication sequence for the NO sensor array

A) Bare 4 Si wafer B) 5m of photoresist was spin-coated on to the surface, followed by a pre-
bake for 1min at 90C. C) The samples were then exposed through a mask for 16s using UV
light at 365nm and an intensity of 15mW/cm2. D) Patterned photoresist after development. E)
20nm of Ti, 150nm of Au and 50nm of C were evaporated on. F) The metal on the unexposed
areas was removed by incubation in an acetone bath. G)A 2nd layer of photoresist, which
serves as the insulation layer, was spun on and patterned. H) The windows in the second layer
also defined the microelectrode sites.
NO Sensor Calibration
NO Sensor Calibration
Multichannel NO
Recordings