Stone Column-2013

Stone Column
Dr. M. Hafez
soil88@gmail.com
Stone Column / Vibro Replacement Process
SCOPE OF STUDY
What is Stone column?
Introduction, Installation, Construction,

Consideration
How to Design Stone column?
Theoretical background & Design Examples
Where Stone column has been applied?
Studies of three real stone columns function

WHAT IS STONE COLUMN?
Definition of Stone-Column
Process of Vibro-Compaction of stone or
other materials, instead of coarse-granular
material as which is conducted in Normal-
Vibro-Compaction , introduces STONE-
COLUMNS.
Stone-Columns,Vibro-Concrete
Column(VCC) and Geotextile-Encased
Column(GEC) are diffrent types of stone.
They are mainly used for improving soft
clays,silts and silty-sands.
It is believed that this method was used
first in France in 1830s.this method is in
Function of Stone-Column
Stone columns are in use in diffrent types
of applications , such as : (1) stabilizing
Foundation soils to support
embankments, (2) supporting retaining
structures, abutments structures, (3)
landslide stabilization and reducing
liquefaction potential of clean sands, (4)
reducing primary consolidation time under
proper conditions.
Stress Stress
f - Mat/Pile Cap Pressure f - Mat/Pile Cap Pressure
p Stress Induced to Piles c Stone Column Stress
s Soil Stress
Idealized stress distribution pattern for deep Idealized stress distribution pattern for stone
foundation systems (piles) column systems
Construction of Stone-Column
Stone-Column construction concludes
partial replacement of unsuitable
subsurface soil with a compacted vertical
column of stone that usually completely
enters the weak layer.
Vibro-Replacement or Wet Process uses
jet of water in the procedure, if used
without jetting water, the process is known
as Vibro-Displacement or Dry Process.
The stone is densified by using a vibrating
probe which in many cases is called
Vibroflot or Poker. The hole may be
Construction of Stone-Column
The probe typically varies in diameter
between 360 to 400 millimeters and mostly
due to erosion and lateral compaction.
the excavated hole is slightly larger than
probe.
The hole is usually backfilled in 30 to 120
centimeters elevations with the probe usually
is left inside the hole.
Stone is dumped from ground surface and
falls through circular space between side of
enlarged hole and probe.
Each lift is repenetrated for several times to
densify the stone and force the stone into the
Performance Mechanism of Stone-Column
15 to 35 percent of weak soil is replaced
by stone.
Compressibility of medium will be
reduced.
Shear strength of soil will be increased.
Designing load is usually between 20 to
50 tons.
Bulging happens in perpendicular axis to
the stone column axe of construction and
due to confinement of soil from lateral
movement , vertical settlement will be
reduced with the use of concept of plane
International opinions on utilization of Stone-Column
Stone columns are specifically used in
stabilizing large area load such as
Embankments , Tanks, Fills
The most economical and also the least
hazardous geotechnical length of a stone
column usually can be reached in 6 to 10
meters.
Deep foundation is considered if the
required length exceeds 10 meters.
Organic soil introduces high
compressibility and hence large vertical
deformation will happen. Skip vibro-
International opinions on utilization of Stone-Column
Stone column should be applied to soil
with undrained shear strength as low as 7
KN/m2 so as the stone column reinforces
the medium, the shear strengths will be
more as 50 to 100 KN/m2.
If the shear strengths is as more as the
upper limit after appliance of techniques,
there is no need to perform stone column
improvement since the soil is strong
enough to withstand the load.
Advancing bores for Stone-Column
There are many different types of techniques
which are introduced to construct the stone
columns however they are all similar in
principals.
The three stages where all these methods agree
on are: Excavation, Replacement and
Compaction.
The main excavation methods are : (1)
Vibro-Replacement Wet - , (2) Vibro-
Displacement Dry , (3) Rammed Stone
Column , (4) Sand Compaction Pile
Vibro- Replacement
A hole is advanced by using the jet force down
to desired depth.
Adding stone in increments of 30 to 120
centimeters and then densified by using an
electrical or mechanical vibrator located at the
end of the bore-probe.
This method is suited the best in very soft to firm
soil and at a high groundwater table.
Jet water is also important for stabilizing the
hole , ease of penetration of vibrator and
evacuation of loos soil from the hole.
Large amount of water used for this method
makes it uneconomical and later on this large
amount needs to be disposed which sometimes
Vibro- Displacement
Absence of water jet is the key difference
between Vibro-Displacement and Vibro-
Replacement method.
Water table needs to be low in dry method.
Dry method is more economical than wet
process however when stability of bore is in
question , inevitably wet process will be a better
choice.
In use of dry method, the soil shall have 40 to 60
KN/m2 shear strength that is why in use of
vibro-Displacement technique , stability of bore
is always on question.
Usually the diameter of wet bores are larger than
their counterparts and this leads to a higher load
Rammed Stone-Column
Rammed stone columns are made

through driving an open or closed
end pipe in the ground or boring hole
to form a casing and a mixture of
sand and stone is placed into the hole
in increments and rammed using
heavy falling weight. This method was
tried first in Belgium.
Sand Compaction Pile
This method was first introduced in Japan.
This method is mainly used for
stabilization of soft clays in presence of
high water table.
The pile is constructed using driving a
steel case down to the desired elevation
by means of a heavy vibratory hammer
located at the top of the pile. As the pile is
being driven, the casing is filled with sand.
The casing is then repeatedly extracted
and redriven partially using the vibratory
hammer. When the sand is fully placed
VIBRATOR
Stone columns are generally constructed
using a probe either electric or hydraulic
cylindrical shaped vibrating probe.
it is consist of an essential hydraulic or
electric motor mounted on a cylindrical
casing approximately 36 to 46 centimeter
in diameter and 2 to 4.5 meters in length.
The motor serves a set of rotating
eccentric weights which provides the
lateral and compaction forces. The lateral
forces depending on the specific unit
selected maybe between 12 to 28 tons.
VIBRATOR
The vibrator is suspended from boom of a crane.
A 10 meter vibrating probe can be easily
handled using a 40 ton crane with a 12 meter
boom.
Penetration of the probe is accomplished by
vibration, water jetting and dead weights.
The new vibro units are developed which are
self-contained are extensively are used in
Germany as where bottom-feed capability,
hydraulic jack maneuver for boom which extends
downward thrust ,has been attached together
and makes a pull-down rig which does not
need a crane.
Bottom-feed is usually possible using an
Stone-Column Construction
Advancing the bore to desired elevation.
The chosen elevation, must lay on firm strata
rather than soft strata according to less
settlement prediction for firm strata and full
transmission of load applied at the head of stone
column to the toe.
Preaugering the stiff clay and silt since the probe
can not penetrate to these type of layers in
economic sense, however evaluation of expenses
needs to be done before renting the auger rig.
Flushing may be a good practice to remove silt
at the bottom of the whole by raising and falling
the probe for 2 or 3 times.
Flushing surely will increase the diameter of
Leaving the probe within the whole is in
question! Some prefer leaving the probe in the
bore to provide less collapsing risk and some
others raise the probe to give larger area for
stone to be replaced at the bottom of hole.
It is almost practical in many opinions that
collapsing is a higher risk to take care of , so
many contractors prefer to leave the probe
within the bore.
Gradation of the stone in use greatly depends on
sources of aggregates available, subsurface
condition and contractors policies.
in general a course; open-graded stone is used
ranging 12 to 75 millimeters in sizes. Crushed
For dry method a large stone up to 100
millimeters in size may be used to make
sure it reaches the bottom.
uncertainties of stone to be reached the
bottom itself can be another problem
regarding the dry method which may take
this method in doubt to be used.
Using of sand in vibro techniques is
restricted since the upward water pressure,
makes it hard for light sands to reach
bottom of the hole.
Stone columns are built using multi-
layered densification
Multi-layered Densification: granular
deposits are placed to the bottom of the
whole and then the layer is densified using
a probe that usually has jet of water
running, until the desired densification has
been reached.
Due to lateral displacement of the soil
profile due to vibration, usually the
diameter of completed stone column is
larger than the one that has been bored
Subsequent stone columns can be
constructed using removal of the probe
from the completed stone column and
then after moving the crane to the
proposed adjacent location, the procedure
can be repeated to build the next stone
column.
Usually the spacing between adjacent
stone columns is between 2 to 3 meters ,
however in critical condition , it barely
exceeds 1.5 meters.
Decreasing the spacing has a limitation
Excavation rate usually is estimated by 1
to 2 meters per minute and backfilling &
compaction rate is 0.5 to 1 meter per
minute.
It has been roughly estimated that the
cost for each meters of stone column is
between 20 $ to 25 $.
Consideration in Stone-Column Construction
In presence of peat layer, it is always more
preferable to deal with fibrous peat than
non-fibrous peat .
The ratio of peat layer thickness over
column diameter should always be kept as
less than one.
Generally it is more desirable to flush out
any type of peat material from the stone-
column.
In presence of sensitive clays and silts,
vibration usually tends to lose strength of
this type of materials which is a result of
pore-water pressure rearrangement to
upward direction.(Effective stress concept
& Mohr-Circle Relation with Effective
stress concept.)
It is advised to use wet vibro-replacement
technique.
In soft layers usually it is practicable to
construct a granular mat over the surface
by replacing the in-situ soil by granular
deposits of stronger physical properties
where especially the groundwater is high.
Constructing such a mat has two
advantages, (1) relocation of bulging to a
bellower point which can significantly
increase the bearing capacity of soil and
also (2) It can work as a plane to transfer
the load more distributive over cross-
section area of column.
Load test on Stone-Column
The load of 100 to 150 percent of design
loads usually applies to single stone
column whereas it is less practical to load
a group of stone columns.
However depending on importance of
project, sometimes it is inevitable to go
under area load methods which roughly
costs about 7000$.
This type of tests usually can be
performed in 5 increments of load , to
verify the design load whether to be bear
via stone column or not.
How to Design Stone-Columns?
Failure mechanism of Single Stone-Column
Single stone column can be built upon a
firm stratum under a soft soil by end
bearing capability or as a floating column
with tip of column embedded within the
soft soil layer. However end bearing
columns are more in practice.
Bulging can be encountered as the main
factor to influence the failure in stone
column, generally it is believed that if the
length of column exceeds 2-3 times of the
diameter of column, then bulging happens
surely.
As can be seen in the

figure, the area which
has been shown with
dash-lines is most
probable to have
bulging effect within.
In the case where a rigid
short column is
assumed, the main
criteria which controls
the failure is ,bearing
capacity type of failures
which is denoted by
stress and strain bulbs
that simply follows the
Meyerhof and
Terzaqi type of analysis.
Sometimes when a
floating
Failure stoneof Single
mechanism columnStone-Column
embedding in soft soil is
considered, especially if
it is short one which
indicates that length of
the column is less than
2-3 times of diameter,
before bulging can
occur, the column is
already unstable due to
failure in end bearing
but even before bulging
can develop.
Studies through small scale models have
shown that end bearing capacity and
settlement behavior of a single stone
column is drastically under influence by
the method of applying the load.
Less bulging and greater ultimate load
capacity is a result of distribution of the
load over a large strip footing and also
the support of stone-column.
It can make the surrounding soil much
stronger to tolerate larger vertical and
lateral forces due to larger capacity of
nearby stress soil.
It has been investigated that total

ultimate capacity of a square
foundation having a 4 times larger
cross-sectional area in compared with
the underlying stone-column, is about
1.7 times greater than if stone-column
itself is loaded.
Failure mechanism of Group Stone-Column
An isolated stone column has a slightly more
ultimate capacity compared to a stone column
group ultimate capacity per column.
As interior columns within a stone column group
are confined by surrounding column, it makes an
apparent stiffness to them and hence more
ultimate capacity per column is expected within
the interior stone-columns
.Spreading is a phenomena as where if a large
load is applied to an area and the soil which
supports the loading is weak, the soil beneath
the area of applying the load and also soil to the
side of foundation start to spread laterally.
Spreading has negative impact on settlement
Lateral spreading displacement

observed has been showed in the
following figure which is a road
embankment test in New Orleans,
U.S.at this site, a retaining wall is
supported using 14 stone columns
each with 1.1 meters diameter,
located in an area of 11 meters by 4
meters in plan. A soil surcharge was
applied to retaining wall and an
excavation was made in front of the
Basic Relationships for Design:
Stone columns are generally constructed
within an equilateral triangular shape
although sometimes square patterns also
can be practiced.
Equilateral triangular area usually gives
the densest packing of stone columns in a
given area.
Unit Cell Concept & Equivalent Diameter :
To analyze settlement and stability of a
stone column, it is conventional to
associate the tributary area of soil around
stone column with a hexagonal shape
which can be interpreted as a very close
approximation of circular pattern with the
same total area.
For an equilateral triangle, equivalent
diameter of the circle is:
=.
For an equilateral triangle, equivalent
Area replacement ratio:
The volume of soil which is replaced by
stone column has a key role in
performance of improved ground.to
quantify the amount of soil replacement.

=

=area replacement ratio
A=total area within unit cell
As= area of stone column after compaction
Area of soil remaining ratio:

= =

Area of replacement ratio in terms of diameter
and spacing of stone column:

= ( )

Where:
D=diameter of compacted stone column
s=center-to-center spacing of stone-column
= a constant dependent on the pattern of
stone-column used; for a square pattern 1 =
4
and for equilateral triangle pattern =

.
After simplification of equation above by

keying-in the coefficients values:
For equilateral triangle pattern:
2
= . ( )
s
For square pattern:
2
= . ( )
s
Stress concentration:
Concentration of stress on stone column
and reduction of stress on near by soil.
The reason can be interpreted as , since
displacement of soil and stone column
are assumed to be equal, the stiffer
material absorbs more stress, as here its
stone column.
concentration factor n defined as:

=

Where:
=stress in stone column
=stress in the surrounding cohesive soil
Due to satisfaction of vertical stress, average stress
which needs to be existed over a unit cell at a
given depth should be as follows:
= . + . ( )
Using the stress concentration factor to solve the
equation above with all other terms defined
previously:

= =
1 + ( 1)

= =
1 + ( 1)
As where and are the ratio of stresses in clay

and stone respectively to the average stresses in
the tributary area.
Ultimate load analysis of a single stone column:
Since ratio of length over diameter in stone

column is usually between 4 to 6, bulging
phenomena usually develops whether at the tip
of stone column lying on a stiff strata or the
case where stone column is floated in a soft
soil.
The behavior of stone column is very similar to
friction or end-bearing piles as where the load
is transferred due to shear transform to
surrounding soil or transmits to hard strata.
Most of analytical but not numerical methods
assume a Triaxial drained state assuming loads
to be applied fast in a way that no
Confining stress 3 usually in these type of

analysis are taken as ultimate passive resistance
of soil.as stone columns introduces bulges to
the surrounding soil, ultimate passive resistance
starts to be mobilized.
Due to classical theory of plasticity confining stress

and vertical stress in a Triaxial state of failure can
be expressed as follows:
+
=

Where, is the angle of internal friction of stone
1
column and is the coefficient of passive earth
Cavity expansion theory:
This theory is based on this fact that as bulging
happens around the stone Colum, passive
resistance of soil starts to progress until it
reaches an ultimate value.
This theory considers the model as an infinite
cylinder which can be expanded through its
symmetric axis.

3 = + [1 + ln ]
2 1 +
Where:
3 : Ultimate lateral undrained stress
: Total in-situ lateral stress
: Elastic Modulus of soil
+
= [ + + ]( )
+
Ultimate bearing capacity using Cavity

Expansion Method
Vesic Cavity expansion theory:
- Vesic developed a model based on infinite
cylinder having the soil whether plastic or elastic,
with both cohesion and friction parameters.
- Hence the ultimate loading capacity developed
by lateral resistance 3 developed by surrounding
soil can be expressed as:
3 = +
Where:
C: cohesion
1+2 +3
q: mean isotropic stress ( ) at the equivalent
3
failure depth.

- Cavity expansion factors are functions of angle of
friction of surrounding soil and rigidity index .

=
2(1 + )( + )
Where:
: Rigidity index.
E: Modulus of elasticity
C: cohesion of soil.
: Poissons
q: mean stress within the zone of failure.
1 +
= +
1
Ultimate bearing capacity using Vesic Cavity

Expansion Method
Ultimate loading capacity of a group of stone columns:
Consider a square rigid concrete footing resting
on a cohesive soil layer improved by stone
columns.
Neglect cohesion in the stone column .
it is needed to approximate a failure surface by
two straight rupture lines.
The load is applied fast in a way that, undrained
state of shear stress is developed in cohesive
soil where angle of friction is negligible.
The soil immediately beneath the foundation
fails approximately on a straight rupture failure
surface that forms a triangular block as can be
seen in Figure 18.
Average shear strength of the soil would be
Hence following equilibrium will be used to
express the states that have been discussed:
[] = . .
= (1 ).
Where:
is the composite angle of internal
friction and is composite cohesion on
shear surface beneath the foundation; is
area replacement ratio and is stress
concentration factor for stone.
Failure surface makes an angle with the
foundation, where the parameter for the
composite soil is:

= 45 +
2
And:
= 1 ( . . )
To determine ultimate lateral pressure 3 which
finally will help significantly to calculate ultimate
bearing capacity, it is important to assume an
infinitely long footing for a saturated clay layer
with no angular internal friction; classical earth
pressure theory will represent that:
. .
3 = + 2
2
Where:
3 is lateral confining pressure, is saturated or
wet unit weight of soil foundation width,
inclination of failure surface provided by equation
above and c as undrained shear strength within
Ultimate load analysis of a group stone column:
= 3. 2 + 2 .
Ultimate bearing capacity for group stone

column
Ultimate load analysis of a group stone column:
Settlement analysis in presence of stone columns:
There are mainly two types of methods to
predict settlement behavior:
(1) simple approximate methods which
have limitations due to simplifying
assumptions
(2) complicated methods based on
elasticity or/and plasticity theory such as
(FEM).
All of these methods for prediction of
settlement presume an infinite wide,
loaded area improved with stone
columns having a constant diameter and
Equilibrium method:
Assumptions:
(1) Unit cell concept is valid
(2) vertical load applied to unit cell has to
be carried by soil and stone.
(3) vertical displacement of soil and stone
is the same.
(4) vertical load is distributed uniformly
along stone column.
(5) settlement beneath the stone column
usually can be neglected due to small
The change in vertical stress in the clay,

due to applied vertical stress is:
= .
Where, is average externally applied stress
and is ratio of stress in clay over average
stress over tributary stress.
Conventional consolidation theory
represents that:
0 +
= log10 ( ).
1 + 0 0
Where:
primary consolidation settlement
occurring over a distance of H of stone
column treated ground, H vertical height of
stone column treated ground over which
settlement are being calculated,0 average
initial effective stress in clay layer, change
in stress in clay layer due to externally
Ratio of improved ground settlement over
untreated ground settlement for normally
consolidated clay is as follows:

0 +
log10
0
=
0 +
log10
0
1-Stress concentration factor as reflected in
.
2- Initial effective stress in clay.
3- Magnitude of applied stress
And hence if other factors are constant, a
greater reduction in settlement which is
ideally state, can happen in longer columns
as where initial effective stress will increase
by increasing of length and for smaller
applied externally load.
For very large 0 and relatively very small,

the ratio above will approaches to:
1
= =
1 + ( 1)
Graph 9 represents the equation above
graphically, hence the results of this graph is
unconservative and resultantly is suitable for
roughly estimation for preliminary
investigations.
Method to Estimate Settlement Reduction Using
Stone Columns in Cohesive Soils
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CASE STUDIES
Some technical approaches on How to Manage GW Resources?

Case study of an Interchange Embankment Fill:
Location : Hampton, Virginia, U.S.A
Function: Stone columns were used to
support part of interchange ramp
embankment
Factors of selection: Stone columns were
selected to reinforce the ground because:
1- Strict environmental constraints.
2- Achieving acceptable post-
construction settlements without
delaying the project.
Maximum height of project: fill heights
in the area reinforced with stone column
Soil profile :
Shear strength :
The median values of shear strength in the
upper 3-5 m as determined by field vane
tests, were 24-29 KN/m2, while the median
value for the softer zones was about 18
kN/m2. The lowest two values observed at
the site were 8.6-9.6 kN/m2.
Stone-Column Specification:
Length: 6 meters
Diameter: 1.1 meters
Pattern: Equilateral Triangular
Spacing: 1.8 2.4 meters
18-33 % soil has been replaced.
Maximum stone size: 64 millimeters
crushed stone
Stone-column load test: single column and
group columns, 401 tons of load for 54
hours and the settlement at the center of
group was 7.9 millimeters. After 130 days
Case study of an Embankment Fill:
Location : Munich, Germany
Function: Stone columns were used to
support a high embankment fill for a high
speed railway embankment
Factors of selection: Rigid Stone columns
were selected to reinforce the ground
because:
1-The sheet pile wall was not required.
2- Embankment fill quantities and working
area were reduced since the peat was not
removed.
3- Construction time was decreased.
Soil profile:
Construction Procedure:
removal and replacement of the peat was
planned to increase stability and reduce
long-term settlement of the embankment.
This alternative involved constructing a
temporary sheet pile wall along the edge of
the existing adjacent embankment for
support during peat removal. The sheet pile
wall was to be tied back into the existing
embankment. The procedure of rigid stone
column is very similar to cast-in concrete
pile. 30 to 60 centimeters of granular
Number of stone-columns: 855 Rigid Type
Method of installation: bottom-feed
Maximum depth of penetration: 6.5 meters
terminated in stiff clay later while passing
through loose gravel
Design load per column: 45 tons
Ultimate loading capacity: 130 tons
Diameter: 510 560 millimeters
Pattern: Equilateral Triangle
Spacing: 1.6 to 2.2 meters
Total Tributary area: 2.8 to 3.0 meters
Area Replacement ratio: 0.06 to 0.08 (much
less than usual conventional stone column)
Reported settlement of embankment: 6
millimeters.
Material: ready mixed concrete, 34 MPa
maximum unconfined compression
strength; maximum grain size is equal to 32
millimeters. Bottom feed method was used.
Design based on ultimate bearing capacity criteria:
Briefing:
Prediction of load due to wide fill
supported by a stone column improved
ground to avoid shear failure of the stone
column is required.
Another saying, the question is to
determine height of the fill to be
supported by stone column improved
ground.
Both a general shear failure and a local
bulging failure need to be considered in a
deep, very soft clay layer.
Solution :
1-Calculate area replacement ratio ( )

2
3.5 2
= 0.907 = 0.907( ) = 0.277
7
2 3.14(3.5)2
= = = 9.62 2
4 4
9.62
= = = 42.4 2
0.277
Solution :
2-Single stone column analysis:

Bulging happens at top one third length
of diameter portion.
Since plastic index of marine clay where
bulging happens within, is less than 30 so
the soil is relatively stiff and hence Nc is
selected by 22.
= = . = 0.45 22 = 9.9
Where:
q: ultimate stress which stone column
Solution :
2-Single stone column analysis:

Nc:
bearing capacity factor for stone column, it
is dependent on compressibility of soil, so
an organic soil for example, may expected
to have smaller value of it. for soils having a
reasonably high initial stiffness an Nc of 22
is recommended. For soils having a
plasticity index greater than 30, Nc of 18 is
recommended. High stiffness soils include
Solution :
3-Deep bulging:
Now check for possibility of bulging failure
in the very soft clay located at the depth of
6 meters.an ultimate lateral stress that a
single column can develop is approximately
equal to 9c=9(0.2 ksf)=1.8 ksf.
1 +
= 1 = 3 = 1.8 5.04 = 9.07
1
( ) > ( )
( )
Solution :
4-cohesive soil:
Maximum ultimate stress that surrounding
clay can take is 5c=5(0.45 ksf)= 2.25 ksf.
However the total load applied at the unit
cell must not overload the clay, hence,
assuming concentration factor n=3:
1 1
= = = 0.688
1 + ( 1) 1 + 3 1 0.227
3
= = = 2.06
1 + ( 1) 1 + 3 1 0.227
= 3 , since
9.07
Then . = = 0.688
2.06
Solution :
5-allowable fill loading:
The ultimate loadings which can be applied
over the unit cell are within the fill area is:
= . + .
= 9.07 9.62 2
+ 2.25 32.8 2 = 161
Using a safety factor of 2 hence represents
ultimate load to be applied for stone
column as: 161/2=80.5 k= P (allowable)
Solution :
5-allowable fill loading: (cont.)
The height of embankment which applies
the safe loading to the unit cell can be
calculated as follows:
80.5
.
== = = = 15.1
. 42.4 0.125
= 4.6 .
The height of embankment which applies
the safe loading to the unit cell can be
calculated as follows:
80.5
.
== = = = 15.1
. 42.4 0.125
= 4.6 .
Solution :
6-commentary:
Settlement of the fill is significant and
should be calculated.
in this example the very soft clay at depth
of 6 meters, controls the load which
needs to be applied to the stone column.
Use of an ultimate lateral stress of 9c
acting on the stone column hence give a
conservative but realistic estimation of
ultimate resistance regarding bulging that
can be developed.
Design based on group ultimate bearing capacity criteria:
Briefing:
Stone column were used to reduce
settlement of a foundation 4.1 by 3.2
meters squared.
Determine the ultimate and safe bearing
capacity of 10 stone column groups.
The material properties and geometries
are illustrated in figure below.

Modular ratio ( ) assumed to be 6.in

general it is not recommended to use
spacing less than 5 ft.
Solution :
1-calculate area replacement ratio ( )
3.14 2
= 2.5 10 = 49.1 2
4
= 13.5 10.5 = 141.8 2
49.1
= = = 0.346
141.8
Solution :
2-determine stress concentration in stone
column:
Stress concentration factor is derived from

fig.27 as 2.0.(n=2.0)
2
= = = 1.49
1 + ( 1) 1 + 2 1 0.346
Solution :
3-calculate the composite shear strength
within the stone column group:
( ) = = 1.49 42 0.346 =

0.464
= 1 0.464 = 24.9
= 1.566, 2 = 2.454
= 1 = 1 1 0.346 = 0.654
Solution :
4-Calculate in surrounding clay of
stone column using Vesic cavity
expansion theory:
Since clay is stiff, no organic is existed
and PI=30 which represents young
modulus of 11c (E=11c) for calculating
the rigidity index.( ).
The average diameter of foundation is =
4
= 13.4 .
3.14
Solution :
4- ( cont.)
Now calculate the rigidity index:
11
= =
2(1 + )( + ) 2(1 + 0.45)( + 0.931 0)
= 3.79
= ln + 1 = 2.33 & = 1.0
3 = + = 1 2.33 + 0.931 1.0 = 3.26

Solution :
5-calculate the ultimate vertical load and
stress that can be applied over the rigid
foundation:
= 1 = 3 . 2 + 2 . =
3.26 2.454 + 2 0.654 1.566 = 10
And finally the ultimate load that can be applied is: ( FOS=2)
2 1418
= . = 10 141.8 = =
2
709 35.5
Solution :
6-commentary:
Settlement analysis may control the design
process.so it is inevitable to check
settlement criteria and an example
regarding the basic procedure is
demonstrated in the next illustration. The
average loading applied to foundation is =
= 5 , the probable distribution of
709
141.8 2
load between stone column and for
concentration factor ( n) of 2 ,would be :

= = = 0.743 5 = 3.7
1 + ( 1)
Solution :
6-commentary: ( cont.)
Since ultimate stress that stiff clay can bear
is 6.2c=6.2 ksf, and comparing this value
with the current site condition, clay stress is
not excessive.
As discussed in previous sections, the ratio
of settlement of a treated ground to an
unimproved ground is = = 0.74, hence for
the condition analyzed 25 percent reduction
in settlement due to initial condition is
expected. For this site condition use of a
Design based on settlement criteria:
Briefing:
Calculation of settlement in in soft clay
site reinforced with stone columns and
loaded by a wide fill. Primary settlement
is calculated using Equilibrium method.
Subsurface conditions are as follows:
1- 20 ft.(6.1 m) of gray , soft silty clay
2- Firm to dense sand
3- Groundwater table is at the surface
4- Equilateral triangular pattern of stone
column is selected.
5-Spacing between stone columns is 6.5 ft.(
Solution:
Equilibrium Method:
The average stress exerted by 2.5 ft. sand
blanket layer and 12.5 ft. structural fill on
top of stone column is approximately:
= 12.5 . (120 ) + 2.5 . 108 = 1770
Area replacement ratio for an equilateral
triangular stone column will be calculated as
follows:
2 3.5 . 2
= 0.907( ) = 0.907( ) = 0.263
6.5 .
Assume stress concentration of 5 for
settlement analysis and then ratio of stress
The initial effective stress at the middle of
silty clay layer is:
0 = 10 . 95 62.4 = 326
The primary consolidation settlement in the
clay layer from 1-D consolidation theory
based on spring-dashpot explanation then
can be calculated as:
0 +
= log10
1 + 0 0
0.7 326 . +(1770 )(0.487)
= log10
1 + 2.0 326

(20. 12 = 31.4 .

If the site was not under treatment, primary

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Stone Column-2013

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Stone Column

Introduction, Installation, Construction,

How to Design Stone column?

Theoretical background & Design Examples

Where Stone column has been applied?

Studies of three real stone columns function

Rammed stone columns are made

As can be seen in the

It has been investigated that total

Lateral spreading displacement

stone-column used; for a square pattern 1 =

After simplification of equation above by

As where and are the ratio of stresses in clay

Since ratio of length over diameter in stone

Confining stress 3 usually in these type of

Due to classical theory of plasticity confining stress

Ultimate bearing capacity using Cavity

Ultimate bearing capacity using Vesic Cavity

Ultimate bearing capacity for group stone

The change in vertical stress in the clay,

For very large 0 and relatively very small,

Some technical approaches on How to Manage GW Resources?

1-Calculate area replacement ratio ( )

2-Single stone column analysis:

2-Single stone column analysis:

= 13.5 10.5 = 141.8 2

Stress concentration factor is derived from

= ln + 1 = 2.33 & = 1.0

3 = + = 1 2.33 + 0.931 1.0 = 3.26

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