Nervous Systems: Powerpoint Lectures For

Chapter 48
Nervous Systems
PowerPoint Lectures for

Biology, Seventh Edition
Neil Campbell and Jane Reece
Lectures by Chris Romero

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Overview: Command and Control Center
The human brain
Contains an estimated 100 billion nerve cells,
or neurons
Each neuron
May communicate with thousands of other
neurons

Functional magnetic resonance imaging
Is a technology that can reconstruct a three-
dimensional map of brain activity
Figure 48.1

The results of brain imaging and other research
methods
Reveal that groups of neurons function in
specialized circuits dedicated to different tasks

Concept 48.1: Nervous systems consist of
circuits of neurons and supporting cells
All animals except sponges
Have some type of nervous system
What distinguishes the nervous systems of

different animal groups
Is how the neurons are organized into circuits

Organization of Nervous Systems
The simplest animals with nervous systems,
the cnidarians
Have neurons arranged in nerve nets
Nerve net
Figure 48.2a (a) Hydra (cnidarian)

Sea stars have a nerve net in each arm
Connected by radial nerves to a central nerve
ring
Radial
nerve
Nerve
ring
Figure 48.2b (b) Sea star (echinoderm)

In relatively simple cephalized animals, such as
flatworms
A central nervous system (CNS) is evident
Eyespot
Brain
Nerve
cord
Transverse
nerve
Figure 48.2c (c) Planarian (flatworm)

Annelids and arthropods
Have segmentally arranged clusters of
neurons called ganglia
These ganglia connect to the CNS

And make up a peripheral nervous system
(PNS)
Brain Brain
Ventral
nerve cord
Ventral
nerve
cord
Segmental
Segmental ganglia
ganglion
Figure 48.2d, e (d) Leech (annelid) (e) Insect (arthropod)

Nervous systems in molluscs
Correlate with the animals lifestyles
Sessile molluscs have simple systems

While more complex molluscs have more
sophisticated systems
Anterior
nerve ring Ganglia
Brain
Longitudinal
nerve cords Ganglia
Figure 48.2f, g (f) Chiton (mollusc) (g) Squid (mollusc)

In vertebrates
The central nervous system consists of a brain
and dorsal spinal cord
The PNS connects to the CNS
Brain
Sensory
Spinal
ganglion
cord
(dorsal
nerve
cord)
Figure 48.2h (h) Salamander (chordate)

Information Processing
Nervous systems process information in three
stages
Sensory input, integration, and motor output
Sensory input
Integration
Sensor
Motor output
Effector
Figure 48.3 Peripheral nervous Central nervous
system (PNS) system (CNS)
Sensory neurons transmit information from
sensors
That detect external stimuli and internal
conditions
Sensory information is sent to the CNS

Where interneurons integrate the information
Motor output leaves the CNS via motor

neurons
Which communicate with effector cells
The three stages of information processing
Are illustrated in the knee-jerk reflex
2 Sensors detect 3 Sensory neurons 4 The sensory neurons communicate with
a sudden stretch in convey the information motor neurons that supply the quadriceps. The
the quadriceps. to the spinal cord. motor neurons convey signals to the quadriceps,
Cell body of causing it to contract and jerking the lower leg forward.
sensory neuron
in dorsal Gray matter
root ganglion 5 Sensory neurons
Quadriceps from the quadriceps
muscle also communicate
White with interneurons
matter in the spinal cord.
Hamstring
muscle 6 The interneurons
inhibit motor neurons
that supply the
Spinal cord hamstring (flexor)
(cross section) muscle. This inhibition
prevents the hamstring
Sensory neuron from contracting,
Motor neuron which would resist
1 The reflex is the action of
Interneuron
initiated by tapping the quadriceps.
the tendon connected
to the quadriceps
Figure 48.4 (extensor) muscle.

Neuron Structure
Most of a neurons organelles
Are located in the cell body
Dendrites
Cell body
Nucleus
Synapse
Signal
Axon direction
Axon hillock
Presynaptic cell Postsynaptic cell

Myelin sheath
Synaptic
Figure 48.5
terminals
Most neurons have dendrites
Highly branched extensions that receive
signals from other neurons
The axon is typically a much longer extension

That transmits signals to other cells at
synapses
That may be covered with a myelin sheath

Neurons have a wide variety of shapes
That reflect their input and output interactions
Dendrites
Axon
Cell
body
Figure 48.6ac (a) Sensory neuron (b) Interneurons (c) Motor neuron
Supporting Cells (Glia)
Glia are supporting cells
That are essential for the structural integrity of
the nervous system and for the normal
functioning of neurons

In the CNS, astrocytes
Provide structural support for neurons and
regulate the extracellular concentrations of
ions and neurotransmitters
50 m
Figure 48.7
Oligodendrocytes (in the CNS) and Schwann
cells (in the PNS)
Are glia that form the myelin sheaths around
the axons of many vertebrate neurons
Node of Ranvier
Layers of myelin
Axon
Schwann
cell Schwann
cell
Nodes of Nucleus of
Axon Myelin sheath
Ranvier Schwann cell
Figure 48.8
0.1 m

Concept 48.2: Ion pumps and ion channels
maintain the resting potential of a neuron
Across its plasma membrane, every cell has a
voltage
Called a membrane potential
The inside of a cell is negative

Relative to the outside

The membrane potential of a cell can be
measured
APPLICATION Electrophysiologists use intracellular recording to measure the membrane potential of
neurons and other cells.
TECHNIQUE A microelectrode is made from a glass capillary tube filled with an electrically conductive
salt solution. One end of the tube tapers to an extremely fine tip (diameter < 1 m). While looking through a
microscope, the experimenter uses a micropositioner to insert the tip of the microelectrode into a cell. A
voltage recorder (usually an oscilloscope or a computer-based system) measures the voltage between the
microelectrode tip inside the cell and a reference electrode placed in the solution outside the cell.
Microelectrode
70 mV
Voltage
recorder
Reference
Figure 48.9 electrode
The Resting Potential
The resting potential
Is the membrane potential of a neuron that is
not transmitting signals

In all neurons, the resting potential
Depends on the ionic gradients that exist
across the plasma membrane
CYTOSOL EXTRACELLULAR
FLUID
[Na+] + [Na+]
15 mM 150 mM
[K+] + [K+]
150 mM 5 mM
+
[Cl] [Cl]
10 mM + 120 mM
[A]
100 mM +
Plasma
membrane
Figure 48.10
The concentration of Na+ is higher in the
extracellular fluid than in the cytosol
While the opposite is true for K+

By modeling a mammalian neuron with an
artificial membrane
We can gain a better understanding of the
resting potential of a neuron
Inner Outer
chamber 92 mV chamber Inner +62 mV Outer
chamber chamber
+
+
150 mM 5 mM 15 mM 150 mM
KCL KCL NaCl NaCl
Cl
+
+
K+ Na+
+ Cl
Potassium Sodium +
Artificial
channel channel
membrane
Figure 48.11a, b (a) Membrane selectively permeable to K+ (b) Membrane selectively permeable to Na+
A neuron that is not transmitting signals
Contains many open K+ channels and fewer
open Na+ channels in its plasma membrane
The diffusion of K+ and Na+ through these

channels
Leads to a separation of charges across the
membrane, producing the resting potential

Gated Ion Channels
Gated ion channels open or close
In response to membrane stretch or the
binding of a specific ligand
In response to a change in the membrane
potential

Concept 48.3: Action potentials are the signals
conducted by axons
If a cell has gated ion channels
Its membrane potential may change in
response to stimuli that open or close those
channels

Some stimuli trigger a hyperpolarization
An increase in the magnitude of the membrane
potential Stimuli
+50
Membrane potential (mV)

0
50 Threshold
Resting
potential Hyperpolarizations
100
0 1 2 3 4 5
Time (msec)
(a) Graded hyperpolarizations
produced by two stimuli that
increase membrane permeability
to K+. The larger stimulus produces
Figure 48.12a a larger hyperpolarization.
Other stimuli trigger a depolarization
A reduction in the magnitude of the membrane
potential Stimuli
+50

0
50 Threshold
Resting Depolarizations
potential
100
0 1 2 3 4 5
Time (msec)
(b) Graded depolarizations produced
by two stimuli that increase
membrane permeability to Na+.
The larger stimulus produces a
Figure 48.12b larger depolarization.
Hyperpolarization and depolarization
Are both called graded potentials because the
magnitude of the change in membrane
potential varies with the strength of the
stimulus

Production of Action Potentials
In most neurons, depolarizations
Are graded only up to a certain membrane
voltage, called the threshold

A stimulus strong enough to produce a
depolarization that reaches the threshold
Triggers a different type of response, called an
action potential Stronger depolarizing stimulus
+50
Action

potential
Threshold
50
Resting
potential
100
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Time (msec)
(c) Action potential triggered by a
depolarization that reaches the
Figure 48.12c threshold.
An action potential
Is a brief all-or-none depolarization of a
neurons plasma membrane
Is the type of signal that carries information
along axons

Both voltage-gated Na+ channels and voltage-
gated K+ channels
Are involved in the production of an action
potential
When a stimulus depolarizes the membrane

Na+ channels open, allowing Na+ to diffuse into
the cell

As the action potential subsides
K+ channels open, and K+ flows out of the cell
A refractory period follows the action potential

During which a second action potential cannot
be initiated

The generation of an action potential
Na+ Na+
Na+ Na+
+ + + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + +
K+
3 Rising phase of the action potential K+

Depolarization opens the activation
gates on most Na+ channels, while the 4 Falling phase of the action potential
K+ channels activation gates remain The inactivation gates on
closed. Na+ influx makes the inside of most Na+ channels close,
the membrane positive with respect blocking Na+ influx. The
to the outside. activation gates on most
+50
Action K+ channels open,
Membrane potential
Na+ Na+ potential permitting K+ efflux
3 which again makes
+ + + + + + + + 0
(mV)
the inside of the cell
2 4 negative.
Threshold
50
1 5 1
K+
Resting potential
100
2 Depolarization A stimulus opens the Time
activation gates on some Na+ channels. Na+
influx through those channels depolarizes the
membrane. If the depolarization reaches the Na+ Na+
threshold, it triggers an action potential.
+ + + + + + + +
Extracellular fluid Activation
Potassium gates
Na+
channel

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + +
K+
Plasma membrane
5 Undershoot Both gates of the Na+ channels
Cytosol are closed, but the activation gates on some K+
Sodium K+ Inactivation
channels are still open. As these gates close on
channel gate
most K+ channels, and the inactivation gates
1 Resting state The activation gates on the Na+ and K+ channels open on Na+ channels, the membrane returns to
Figure 48.13 are closed, and the membranes resting potential is maintained. its resting state.

Conduction of Action Potentials
An action potential can travel long distances
By regenerating itself along the axon

At the site where the action potential is
generated, usually the axon hillock
An electrical current depolarizes the
neighboring region of the axon membrane
Axon
Action
potential
+ + + + + +
+ ++
1 An action potential is generated
Na
+ + as Na+ flows inward across the
+ + + + + + membrane at one location.
Action 2 The depolarization of the action

K+ potential
+ + + + + + potential spreads to the neighboring
+ +
+ region of the membrane, re-initiating
Na
+ +
the action potential there. To the left
+ + + + + +
K+ of this region, the membrane is
repolarizing as K+ flows outward.
Action The depolarization-repolarization process is
3
K+ potential
+ + + + repeated in the next region of the
+ ++ + + membrane. In this way, local currents
Na + +
+ + of ions across the plasma membrane
+ + +
Figure 48.14 +
K+
cause the action potential to be propagated
along the length of the axon.

Conduction Speed
The speed of an action potential
Increases with the diameter of an axon
In vertebrates, axons are myelinated

Also causing the speed of an action potential
to increase

Action potentials in myelinated axons
Jump between the nodes of Ranvier in a
process called saltatory conduction
Schwann cell
Depolarized region
(node of Ranvier)
Myelin
sheath

+
Cell body ++ +
+ +
++
Axon
+
++

Figure 48.15

Concept 48.4: Neurons communicate with
other cells at synapses
In an electrical synapse
Electrical current flows directly from one cell to
another via a gap junction
The vast majority of synapses

Are chemical synapses

In a chemical synapse, a presynaptic neuron
Releases chemical neurotransmitters, which
are stored in the synaptic terminal
Postsynaptic
neuron
Synaptic
terminal
of presynaptic
neurons
5 m
Figure 48.16
When an action potential reaches a terminal
The final result is the release of
neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft
Postsynaptic cell
Presynaptic
cell
5 Na+
Synaptic vesicles Neuro-
K+
containing transmitter
Presynaptic
neurotransmitter
membrane
Postsynaptic
membrane
Ligand-
gated
Voltage-gated ion channel
Ca2+ channel
1 Ca2+
4 Postsynaptic
2 6
membrane
Synaptic cleft 3
Ligand-gated
Figure 48.17 ion channels

Direct Synaptic Transmission
The process of direct synaptic transmission
Involves the binding of neurotransmitters to
ligand-gated ion channels

Neurotransmitter binding
Causes the ion channels to open, generating a
postsynaptic potential

Postsynaptic potentials fall into two categories
Excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs)
Inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSPs)

After its release, the neurotransmitter
Diffuses out of the synaptic cleft
May be taken up by surrounding cells and
degraded by enzymes

Summation of Postsynaptic Potentials
Unlike action potentials
Postsynaptic potentials are graded and do not
regenerate themselves

Since most neurons have many synapses on
their dendrites and cell body
A single EPSP is usually too small to trigger an
action potential in a postsynaptic neuron
Terminal branch of
presynaptic neuron
Postsynaptic
neuron E1
Threshold of axon of
0 postsynaptic neuron
Resting
potential
70
E1 E1
(a) Subthreshold, no
summation
Figure 48.18a
If two EPSPs are produced in rapid succession
An effect called temporal summation occurs
E1
Axon
hillock
Action
potential
E1 E1
(b) Temporal summation
Figure 48.18b

In spatial summation
EPSPs produced nearly simultaneously by
different synapses on the same postsynaptic
neuron add together E 1
E2
Action
potential
E1 + E2
(c) Spatial summation

Figure 48.18c
Through summation
An IPSP can counter the effect of an EPSP
E1
E1 I E1 + I
(d) Spatial summation
of EPSP and IPSP
Figure 48.18d

Indirect Synaptic Transmission
In indirect synaptic transmission
A neurotransmitter binds to a receptor that is
not part of an ion channel
This binding activates a signal transduction

pathway
Involving a second messenger in the
postsynaptic cell, producing a slowly
developing but long-lasting effect

Neurotransmitters
The same neurotransmitter
Can produce different effects in different types
of cells

Major neurotransmitters
Table 48.1

Acetylcholine
Acetylcholine
Is one of the most common neurotransmitters
in both vertebrates and invertebrates
Can be inhibitory or excitatory

Biogenic Amines
Biogenic amines
Include epinephrine, norepinephrine,
dopamine, and serotonin
Are active in the CNS and PNS

Amino Acids and Peptides
Various amino acids and peptides
Are active in the brain

Gases
Gases such as nitric oxide and carbon
monoxide
Are local regulators in the PNS

Concept 48.5: The vertebrate nervous system
is regionally specialized
In all vertebrates, the nervous system
Shows a high degree of cephalization and
distinct CNS and PNS components Central nervous
Peripheral nervous
system (CNS)
system (PNS)
Brain Cranial
Spinal cord nerves
Ganglia
outside
CNS
Spinal
nerves
Figure 48.19
The brain provides the integrative power
That underlies the complex behavior of
vertebrates
The spinal cord integrates simple responses to

certain kinds of stimuli
And conveys information to and from the brain

The central canal of the spinal cord and the
four ventricles of the brain
Are hollow, since they are derived from the
dorsal embryonic nerve cord
Gray matter
White
matter
Ventricles
Figure 48.20

The Peripheral Nervous System
The PNS transmits information to and from the
CNS
And plays a large role in regulating a
vertebrates movement and internal
environment

The cranial nerves originate in the brain
And terminate mostly in organs of the head
and upper body
The spinal nerves originate in the spinal cord

And extend to parts of the body below the
head

The PNS can be divided into two functional
components
The somatic nervous system and the
autonomic nervous system
Peripheral
nervous system
Somatic Autonomic
nervous nervous
system system
Sympathetic Parasympathetic Enteric

division division division
Figure 48.21

The somatic nervous system
Carries signals to skeletal muscles
The autonomic nervous system

Regulates the internal environment, in an
involuntary manner
Is divided into the sympathetic,
parasympathetic, and enteric divisions

The sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions
Have antagonistic effects on target organs
Parasympathetic division Sympathetic division
Action on target organs: Action on target organs:
Constricts pupil Dilates pupil

Location of of eye Location of
preganglionic neurons: of eye
preganglionic neurons:
brainstem and sacral thoracic and lumbar
segments of spinal cord Stimulates salivary Inhibits salivary
gland secretion segments of spinal cord
gland secretion
Sympathetic
Neurotransmitter Constricts ganglia Relaxes bronchi Neurotransmitter
released by bronchi in lungs Cervical in lungs released by
acetylcholine
Slows heart Accelerates heart acetylcholine
Inhibits activity of
stomach and intestines
Location of Stimulates activity Thoracic Location of
postganglionic neurons: of stomach and postganglionic neurons:
in ganglia close to or intestines Inhibits activity
some in ganglia close to
within target organs of pancreas
target organs; others in
Stimulates activity a chain of ganglia near
of pancreas Stimulates glucose spinal cord
release from liver;
inhibits gallbladder
Stimulates Lumbar
Neurotransmitter
gallbladder
released by Stimulates Neurotransmitter
postganglionic neurons: adrenal medulla released by
acetylcholine postganglionic neurons:
Promotes emptying norepinephrine
Inhibits emptying
of bladder
of bladder
Promotes erection Promotes ejaculation and

of genitalia Sacral
Figure 48.22 Synapse vaginal contractions

The sympathetic division
Correlates with the fight-or-flight response
The parasympathetic division

Promotes a return to self-maintenance
functions
The enteric division

Controls the activity of the digestive tract,
pancreas, and gallbladder

Embryonic Development of the Brain
In all vertebrates
The brain develops from three embryonic
regions: the forebrain, the midbrain, and the
Embryonic brain regions
hindbrain
Forebrain
Midbrain
Hindbrain
Midbrain Hindbrain
Forebrain
(a) Embryo at one month

Figure 48.23a
By the fifth week of human embryonic
development
Five brain regions have formed from the three Embryonic brain regions
embryonic regions
Telencephalon
Diencephalon
Mesencephalon
Metencephalon
Myelencephalon
Mesencephalon
Metencephalon
Diencephalon
Myelencephalon
Spinal cord
Telencephalon
Figure 48.23b (b) Embryo at five weeks

As a human brain develops further
The most profound change occurs in the
forebrain, which gives rise to the cerebrum
Brain structures present in adult
Cerebrum (cerebral hemispheres; includes cerebral

cortex, white matter, basal nuclei)
Diencephalon (thalamus, hypothalamus, epithalamus)
Midbrain (part of brainstem)
Pons (part of brainstem), cerebellum
Medulla oblongata (part of brainstem)
Diencephalon:
Cerebral hemisphere Hypothalamus
Thalamus
Pineal gland
(part of epithalamus)
Brainstem:
Midbrain
Pons
Pituitary
gland Medulla
oblongata
Spinal cord Cerebellum
Central canal
(c) Adult
Figure 48.23c
The Brainstem
The brainstem consists of three parts
The medulla oblongata, the pons, and the
midbrain

The medulla oblongata
Contains centers that control several visceral
functions
The pons
Also participates in visceral functions
The midbrain
Contains centers for the receipt and integration
of several types of sensory information

Arousal and Sleep
A diffuse network of neurons called the reticular
formation
Is present in the core of the brainstem
Eye
Input from ears
Reticular formation
Input from touch,
pain, and temperature
Figure 48.24 receptors

A part of the reticular formation, the reticular
activating system (RAS)
Regulates sleep and arousal

The Cerebellum
The cerebellum
Is important for coordination and error
checking during motor, perceptual, and
cognitive functions

The cerebellum
Is also involved in learning and remembering
motor skills

The Diencephalon
The embryonic diencephalon develops into
three adult brain regions
The epithalamus, thalamus, and hypothalamus

The epithalamus
Includes the pineal gland and the choroid
plexus

The thalamus
Is the main input center for sensory information
going to the cerebrum and the main output
center for motor information leaving the
cerebrum

The hypothalamus regulates
Homeostasis
Basic survival behaviors such as feeding,
fighting, fleeing, and reproducing

Circadian Rhythms
The hypothalamus also regulates circadian
rhythms
Such as the sleep/wake cycle
Animals usually have a biological clock

Which is a pair of suprachiasmatic nuclei
(SCN) found in the hypothalamus

Biological clocks usually require external cues
To remain synchronized with environmental cycles
EXPERIMENT In the northern flying squirrel (Glaucomys sabrinus), activity normally begins with the onset of darkness and ends
at dawn, which suggests that light is an important external cue for the squirrel. To test this idea, researchers monitored the activity of captive
squirrels for 23 days under two sets of conditions: (a) a regular cycle of 12 hours of light and 12 hours of darkness and (b) constant darkness.
The squirrels were given free access to an exercise wheel and a rest cage. A recorder automatically noted when the wheel was rotating and
when it was still.
(a) 12 hr light-12 hr dark cycle (b) Constant darkness
Light Dark Light Dark
RESULTS 1
When the squirrels
were exposed to a regular light/dark
cycle, their wheel-turning activity 5
Days of experiment
(indicated by the dark bars) occurred

at roughly the same time every day.
However, when they were kept in 10
constant darkness, their activity phase
began about 21 minutes later each day.
15
20
12 16 20 24 4 8 12 12 16 20 24 4 8 12
Figure 48.25
Time of day (hr) Time of day (hr)
CONCLUSION The northern flying squirrels internal clock can run in constant darkness, but it does so on
its own cycle, which lasts about 24 hours and 21 minutes. External (light) cues keep the clock running on a 24-hour cycle.
The Cerebrum
The cerebrum
Develops from the embryonic telencephalon

The cerebrum has right and left cerebral
hemispheres
That each consist of cerebral cortex overlying
white matter and basal nuclei
Left cerebral Right cerebral
hemisphere hemisphere
Corpus
callosum
Basal
nuclei
Neocortex
Figure 48.26

The basal nuclei
Are important centers for planning and learning
movement sequences
In mammals
The cerebral cortex has a convoluted surface
called the neocortex

In humans, the largest and most complex part
of the brain
Is the cerebral cortex, where sensory
information is analyzed, motor commands are
issued, and language is generated

A thick band of axons, the corpus callosum
Provides communication between the right and
left cerebral cortices

Concept 48.6: The cerebral cortex controls
voluntary movement and cognitive functions
Each side of the cerebral cortex has four lobes
Frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital
Frontal lobe Parietal lobe
Somatosensory
Frontal Speech association
association area
Taste
area
Reading
Speech
Hearing
Visual
Smell association
Auditory area
association
area
Vision
Figure 48.27 Temporal lobe Occipital lobe

Each of the lobes
Contains primary sensory areas and
association areas

Information Processing in the Cerebral Cortex
Specific types of sensory input
Enter the primary sensory areas
Adjacent association areas

Process particular features in the sensory input
and integrate information from different
sensory areas

In the somatosensory cortex and motor cortex
Neurons are distributed according to the part
of the body that generates sensory input or
receives motor input
Frontal lobe Parietal lobe
Genitalia
Toes
Lips
Jaw Tongue
Tongue
Pharynx
Primary Primary
motor cortex Abdominal somatosensory
organs cortex
Figure 48.28

Lateralization of Cortical Function
During brain development, in a process called
lateralization
Competing functions segregate and displace
each other in the cortex of the left and right
cerebral hemispheres

The left hemisphere
Becomes more adept at language, math,
logical operations, and the processing of serial
sequences
The right hemisphere

Is stronger at pattern recognition, nonverbal
thinking, and emotional processing

Language and Speech
Studies of brain activity
Have mapped specific areas of the brain
responsible for language and speech
Max
Hearing Seeing
words words
Min
Speaking Generating
words words
Figure 48.29
Portions of the frontal lobe, Brocas area and
Wernickes area
Are essential for the generation and
understanding of language

Emotions
The limbic system
Is a ring of structures around the brainstem
Thalamus
Hypothalamus
Prefrontal cortex
Olfactory
bulb
Amygdala Hippocampus
Figure 48.30
This limbic system includes three parts of the
cerebral cortex
The amygdala, hippocampus, and olfactory
bulb
These structures interact with the neocortex to

mediate primary emotions
And attach emotional feelings to survival-
related functions

Structures of the limbic system form in early
development
And provide a foundation for emotional
memory, associating emotions with particular
events or experiences

Memory and Learning
The frontal lobes
Are a site of short-term memory
Interact with the hippocampus and amygdala
to consolidate long-term memory

Many sensory and motor association areas of
the cerebral cortex
Are involved in storing and retrieving words
and images

Cellular Mechanisms of Learning
Experiments on invertebrates
Have revealed the cellular basis of some types
of learning
(a) Touching the siphon triggers a reflex that
causes the gill to withdraw. If the tail is Siphon
shocked just before the siphon is touched,
the withdrawal reflex is stronger. This Mantle
strengthening of the reflex is a simple form
of learning called sensitization. Gill
Tail
Head
(b) Sensitization involves interneurons that

make synapses on the synaptic terminals of
Gill withdrawal pathway
the siphon sensory neurons. When the tail
is shocked, the interneurons release
serotonin, which activates a signal Touching
transduction pathway that closes K+ Siphon sensory Gill motor
the siphon
channels in the synaptic terminals of neuron neuron
Gill
the siphon sensory neurons. As a result, Sensitization pathway
action potentials in the siphon sensory
neurons produce a prolonged Interneuron
Shocking
depolarization of the terminals. That allows
the tail Tail sensory
more Ca2+ to diffuse into the terminals,
which causes the terminals to release more neuron
of their excitatory neurotransmitter onto the gill
motor neurons. In response, the motor neurons
generate action potentials at a higher frequency,
Figure 48.31a, b producing a more forceful gill withdrawal.

In the vertebrate brain, a form of learning called
long-term potentiation (LTP)
Involves an increase in the strength of synaptic
transmission 1 The presynaptic
neuron releases glutamate.
2 Glutamate binds to AMPA

PRESYNAPTIC NEURON receptors, opening the AMPA-
receptor channel and depolarizing
the postsynaptic membrane.
7 NO diffuses into the
presynaptic neuron, causing
it to release more glutamate. NO
6 Ca2+ stimulates the NMDA 3 Glutamate also binds to NMDA

receptor receptors. If the postsynaptic
postsynaptic neuron to Glutamate
produce nitric oxide (NO). membrane is simultaneously
AMPA receptor
depolarized, the NMDA-receptor
channel opens.
NO P
5 Ca2+ initiates the phos-
Ca2+
phorylation of AMPA receptors,
making them more responsive.
Ca2+ also causes more AMPA
Signal transduction pathways
receptors to appear in the 4 Ca2+ diffuses into the
Figure 48.32 postsynaptic membrane.
POSTSYNAPTIC NEURON
postsynaptic neuron.

Consciousness
Modern brain-imaging techniques
Suggest that consciousness may be an
emergent property of the brain that is based on
activity in many areas of the cortex

Concept 48.7: CNS injuries and diseases are
the focus of much research
Unlike the PNS, the mammalian CNS
Cannot repair itself when damaged or
assaulted by disease
Current research on nerve cell development

and stem cells
May one day make it possible for physicians to
repair or replace damaged neurons

Nerve Cell Development
Signal molecules direct an axons growth
By binding to receptors on the plasma
membrane of the growth cone

This receptor binding triggers a signal
transduction pathway
Which may cause an axon to grow toward or
away from the source of the signal
Midline of
spinal cord
Developing axon
of interneuron
Developing axon
Growth of motor neuron
cone
Netrin-1
receptor
Netrin-1
receptor
Slit
receptor
Netrin-1
Slit
Cell Netrin-1
Floor Slit
plate adhesion
Slit receptor
molecules
1 Growth toward the floor plate. 2 Growth across the mid-line. 3 No turning back. Netrin-1 and Slit, produced by cells
Cells in the floor plate of the Once the axon reaches the Now the axon synthesizes of the floor plate, bind to receptors
spinal cord release Netrin-1, which floor plate, cell adhesion molecules receptors that bind to Slit, on the axons of motor neurons. In
diffuses away from the floor plate on the axon bind to complementary a repulsion protein re- this case, both proteins act to repel
and binds to receptors on the molecules on floor plate cells, leased by floor plate cells. the axon, directing the motor neuron
growth cone of a developing directing the growth of the axon This prevents the axon to grow away from the spinal cord.
interneuron axon. Binding stimulates across the midline. from growing back across
axon growth toward the floor plate. the midline.
Figure 48.33a, b (a) Growth of an interneuron axon toward and across the midline of the spinal cord
(diagrammed here in cross section)
(b) Growth of a motor neuron axon away
from the midline of the spinal cord

The genes and basic events involved in axon
guidance
Are similar in invertebrates and vertebrates
Knowledge of these events may be applied one

day
To stimulate axonal regrowth following CNS
damage

Neural Stem Cells
The adult human brain
Contains stem cells that can differentiate into
mature neurons
Figure 48.34
The induction of stem cell differentiation and
the transplantation of cultured stem cells
Are potential methods for replacing neurons
lost to trauma or disease

Diseases and Disorders of the Nervous System
Mental illnesses and neurological disorders
Take an enormous toll on society, in both the
patients loss of a productive life and the high
cost of long-term health care

Schizophrenia
About 1% of the worlds population
Suffers from schizophrenia

Schizophrenia is characterized by
Hallucinations, delusions, blunted emotions,
and many other symptoms
Available treatments have focused on

Brain pathways that use dopamine as a
neurotransmitter

Depression
Two broad forms of depressive illness are
known
Bipolar disorder and major depression

Bipolar disorder is characterized by
Manic (high-mood) and depressive (low-mood)
phases
In major depression
Patients have a persistent low mood

Treatments for these types of depression
include
A variety of drugs such as Prozac and lithium

Alzheimers Disease
Alzheimers disease (AD)
Is a mental deterioration characterized by
confusion, memory loss, and other symptoms

AD is caused by the formation of
Neurofibrillary tangles and senile plaques in
the brain 20 m
Senile plaque Neurofibrillary tangle
Figure 48.35
A successful treatment for AD in humans
May hinge on early detection of senile plaques

Parkinsons Disease
Parkinsons disease is a motor disorder
Caused by the death of dopamine-secreting
neurons in the substantia nigra
Characterized by difficulty in initiating
movements, slowness of movement, and
rigidity

There is no cure for Parkinsons disease
Although various approaches are used to
manage the symptoms

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Chapter 48

PowerPoint Lectures for

Lectures by Chris Romero

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What distinguishes the nervous systems of

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Figure 48.2a (a) Hydra (cnidarian)

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Figure 48.2b (b) Sea star (echinoderm)

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Figure 48.2c (c) Planarian (flatworm)

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These ganglia connect to the CNS

Figure 48.2d, e (d) Leech (annelid) (e) Insect (arthropod)

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Sessile molluscs have simple systems

Figure 48.2f, g (f) Chiton (mollusc) (g) Squid (mollusc)

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Figure 48.2h (h) Salamander (chordate)

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Sensory information is sent to the CNS

Motor output leaves the CNS via motor

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Presynaptic cell Postsynaptic cell

The axon is typically a much longer extension

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The inside of a cell is negative

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The diffusion of K+ and Na+ through these

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Membrane potential (mV)

Membrane potential (mV)

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Membrane potential (mV)

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When a stimulus depolarizes the membrane

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A refractory period follows the action potential

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3 Rising phase of the action potential K+

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Action 2 The depolarization of the action

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In vertebrates, axons are myelinated

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The vast majority of synapses

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