Physics 2 - Starts Heat JULY 2017

COLLEGE PHYSICS 2
Engineering Review Outline
Temperature and Expansion Kirchhoffs Laws

Thermal Stress Electrical Energy and Power
Heat and Calorimetry Sound and Wave Motion
Heat Transfer Doppler Effect
Thermodynamics Laws of Reflection
Electrostatic Force; Snells Law
Electric Field Reflection of Light
Electric Potential Refraction of Light
Potential Difference Lenses
Current and Resistance
Ohms Law
Combinations of Resistors and Cells
Electromotive Force
Temperature
and
Termal Expansion
12.1 Common Temperature Scales
Temperatures are reported in degrees

Celsius or degrees Fahrenheit.
Temperatures changed, on the

other hand, are reported in Celsius
degrees or Fahrenheit degrees:
12.2 The Kelvin Temperature Scale
Kelvin temperature
T Tc 273.15
12.4 Linear Thermal Expansion
LINEAR THERMAL EXPANSION OF A SOLID
The length of an object changes when its temperature changes:
L Lo T
coefficient of
linear expansion
Common Unit for the Coefficient of Linear Expansion:

1
C

C 1
Example 3 The Buckling of a Sidewalk
A concrete sidewalk is constructed between

two buildings on a day when the temperature
is 25oC. As the temperature rises to 38oC,
the slabs expand, but no space is provided for
thermal expansion. Determine the distance y
in part (b) of the drawing.
L Lo T

12 10 6
C 3.0 m13 C 0.00047 m
1
y 3.00047 m2 3.00000 m2 0.053 m

Sample Problems
Sample Problems
Sample Problems
Sample Problems
12.5 Volume Thermal Expansion
VOLUME THERMAL EXPANSION
The volume of an object changes when its temperature changes:
V Vo T
coefficient of
volume expansion
Common Unit for the Coefficient of Volume Expansion:

1
C

C 1
Example 8 An Automobile Radiator
A small plastic container, called the coolant reservoir, catches

the radiator fluid that overflows when an automobile engine
becomes hot. The radiator is made of
copper and the coolant has an
expansion coefficient of
4.0x10-4 (Co)-1. If the radiator
is filled to its 15-quart capacity
when the engine is cold (6oC),
how much overflow will spill into the
reservoir when the coolant reaches its
operating temperature (92oC)?

Vcoolant 4.10 10 4
C 15 quarts 86 C 0.53 quarts
1

Vradiator 5110 6
C 15 quarts 86 C 0.066 quarts
1
Vspill 0.53 quarts 0.066 quarts 0.46 quarts

Example
12.6 Heat and Internal Energy
DEFINITION OF HEAT
Heat is energy that flows from a higher-

temperature object to a lower-temperature
object because of a difference in temperatures.
SI Unit of Heat: joule (J)
The heat that flows from hot to cold

originates in the internal energy of
the hot substance.
It is not correct to say that a substance

contains heat.
12.7 Heat and Temperature Change: Specific Heat Capacity
SOLIDS AND LIQUIDS
HEAT SUPPLIED OR REMOVED IN CHANGING THE TEMPERATURE

OF A SUBSTANCE
The heat that must be supplied or removed to change the temperature of

a substance is
Q mcT
specific heat
capacity
Common Unit for Specific Heat Capacity: J/(kgCo)

OTHER UNITS
1 kcal = amount of heat needed to raise the temp of 1 g of water by 1 C.
1 cal = amount of heat needed to raise the temp. of 1 kg of water by 1 C.
Mechanical Equivalence of Heat
James Joule (1818 1889) realized that performing mechanical work

could make the temperature of a substance rise, just as heat transfer can.
1 kcal = 4186 joule

1 cal = 4.186 joules
The Transfer of Heat
13.1 Convection
CONVECTION
Convection is the process in which heat is carried from one place

to another by the bulk movement of a fluid.
convection
currents
13.2 Conduction
CONDUCTION
Conduction is the process whereby heat is transferred directly through

a material, with any bulk motion of the material playing no role in the
transfer.
One mechanism for conduction occurs when the atoms or molecules

in a hotter part of the material vibrate or move with greater energy than
those in a cooler part.
By means of collisions, the more energetic molecules pass on some of

their energy to their less energetic neighbors.
Materials that conduct heat well are called thermal conductors, and those
that conduct heat poorly are called thermal insulators.
13.2 Conduction
The amount of heat Q that is conducted through the bar depends on

a number of factors:
1. The time during which conduction takes place.

2. The temperature difference between the ends of the bar.
3. The cross sectional area of the bar.
4. The length of the bar.
13.2 Conduction
CONDUCTION OF HEAT THROUGH A MATERIAL
The heat Q conducted during a time t through a bar of length

L and cross-sectional area A is
Q
kAT t thermal
conductivity
L
SI Units of Thermal Conductivity: J/(smCo)
13.2 Conduction
13.2 Conduction
Example 4 Layered insulation
One wall of a house consists of plywood backed

by insulation. The thermal conductivities of
the insulation and plywood are, respectively,
0.030 and 0.080 J/(smCo), and the
area of the wall is 35m2.
Find the amount of heat conducted

through the wall in one hour.
13.2 Conduction
Q Qinsulation Qplywood
But first we must solve for the interface temperature.
kAT t kAT t
L L
insulation plywood
0.030 J s m C A25.0 C T t 0.080 J s m C AT 4.0 Ct

0.076 m 0.019 m
T 5.8 C
13.2 Conduction
Qinsulation
0.030 J s m C 35 m 25.0 C 5.8 C3600 s
2
0.076 m
9.5 105 J
13.3 Radiation
RADIATION
Radiation is the process in which

energy is transferred by means of
electromagnetic waves.
A material that is a good absorber

is also a good emitter.
A material that absorbs completely

is called a perfect blackbody.
The Ideal Gas Law
and Kinetic Theory
14.1 Molecular Mass, the Mole, and Avogadros Number
To facilitate comparison of the mass of one atom with another, a mass scale
know as the atomic mass scale has been established.
The unit is called the atomic mass unit (symbol u). The reference element is
chosen to be the most abundant isotope of carbon, which is called carbon-12.
1 u 1.6605 1027 kg
The atomic mass is given in atomic

mass units. For example, a Li atom
has a mass of 6.941u.
One mole of a substance contains as many

particles as there are atoms in 12 grams of
the isotope cabron-12.
The number of atoms per mole is known as

Avogadros number, NA.
N A 6.022 1023 mol 1
N
n
NA
number of number of
moles atoms
mparticleN m
n
mparticleN A Mass per mole
The mass per mole (in g/mol) of a substance

has the same numerical value as the atomic or
molecular mass of the substance (in atomic
mass units).
For example Hydrogen has an atomic mass

of 1.00794 g/mol, while the mass of a single
hydrogen atom is 1.00794 u.
14.2 The Ideal Gas Law
An ideal gas is an idealized model for real gases

that have sufficiently low densities.
The condition of low density means that the

molecules are so far apart that they do not
interact except during collisions, which are
effectively elastic.
At constant volume the pressure

is proportional to the temperature.
P T
At constant temperature, the pressure is

inversely proportional to the volume.
P 1 V
The pressure is also proportional

to the amount of gas.
Pn
THE IDEAL GAS LAW
The absolute pressure of an ideal gas is directly proportional to the Kelvin

temperature and the number of moles of the gas and is inversely proportional
to the volume of the gas.
nRT
P
V
PV nRT
R 8.31J mol K
N
n
NA
R
PV nRT N T NkT
NA
R 8.31 J mol K 23
k 1
1.38 10 J K
N A 6.022 10 mol
23
Example 2 Oxygen in the Lungs
In the lungs, the respiratory membrane separates tiny sacs of air

(pressure 1.00x105Pa) from the blood in the capillaries. These sacs
are called alveoli. The average radius of the alveoli is 0.125 mm, and
the air inside contains 14% oxygen. Assuming that the air behaves as
an ideal gas at 310K, find the number of oxygen molecules in one of
these sacs.
PV NkT
N
PV

5

1.00 10 Pa 0.125 10 m
4 3

3

3
kT 1.38 10 J K 310 K
23
1.9 1014
1.9 10 0.14 2.7 10

14 13
Consider a sample of an ideal gas that is taken from an initial to a final

state, with the amount of the gas remaining constant.
PV
PV nRT nR constant
T
Pf V f PiVi

Tf Ti
Pf V f PiVi

Tf Ti
Constant T, constant n: Pf V f PiVi Boyles law
Vf Vi
Constant P, constant n: Charles law
T f Ti
14.3 Kinetic Theory of Gases
The particles are in constant, random

motion, colliding with each other
and with the walls of the container.
Each collision changes the

particles speed.
As a result, the atoms and

molecules have different
speeds.
KINETIC THEORY
v mv
F ma m t t
Final momentum - Initial momentum

Average force
Time between successive collisions

mv mv mv2

2L v L
For a single molecule, the average force is:
mv2
F
L
For N molecules, the average force is:
N mv
2
F
3 L root-mean-square
speed
F F N mv 2
P 2 3
A L 3 L
volume
N mv
2
P
3 V
NkT KE

PV 13 N mvrms
2

23 N 12 mvrms
2

KE mv
1
2
2
rms 32 kT
Example 6 The Speed of Molecules in Air
Air is primarily a mixture of nitrogen N2 molecules (molecular mass

28.0u) and oxygen O2 molecules (molecular mass 32.0u). Assume
that each behaves as an ideal gas and determine the rms speeds
of the nitrogen and oxygen molecules when the temperature of the air
is 293K.
1
2
2
mvrms 32 kT
3kT
vrms
m
For nitrogen
28.0 g mol 23 26
m 1
4.65 10 g 4.65 10 kg
6.022 10 mol
23
vrms
3kT

3 1.38 1023 J K 293 K
511 m s
26
m 4.65 10 kg
THE INTERNAL ENERGY OF A MONATOMIC IDEAL GAS
KE 12 mvrms
2
32 kT
U N 32 kT 32 nRT
Thermodynamics
15.1 Thermodynamic Systems and Their Surroundings
Thermodynamics is the branch of physics that is built

upon the fundamental laws that heat and work obey.
The collection of objects on which attention is being

focused is called the system, while everything else
in the environment is called the surroundings.
Walls that permit heat flow are called diathermal walls,

while walls that do not permit heat flow are called
adiabatic walls.
To understand thermodynamics, it is necessary to

describe the state of a system.
15.2 The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
Two systems are said to be in thermal

equilibrium if there is no heat flow
between then when they are brought
into contact.
Temperature is the indicator of thermal

equilibrium in the sense that there is no
net flow of heat between two systems
in thermal contact that have the same
temperature.
15.2 The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
THE ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
Two systems individually in thermal equilibrium

with a third system are in thermal equilibrium
with each other.
15.3 The First Law of Thermodynamics
Suppose that a system gains heat Q and that is the only effect occurring.
Consistent with the law of conservation of energy, the internal energy

of the system changes:
U U f U i Q
Heat is positive when the system gains heat and negative when the system
loses heat.
If a system does work W on its surroundings and there is no heat flow,

conservation of energy indicates that the internal energy of the system
will decrease:
U U f U i W
Work is positive when it is done by the system and negative when it is done
on the system.
THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
The internal energy of a system changes due to heat and work:
U U f U i Q W
Heat is positive when the system gains heat and negative when the system
loses heat.
Work is positive when it is done by the system and negative when it is done
on the system.
Example 1 Positive and Negative Work
In part a of figure, the system gains 1500J of heat

and 2200J of work is done by the system on its
surroundings.
In part b, the system also gains 1500J of heat, but

2200J of work is done on the system.
In each case, determine the change in internal energy

of the system.
(a)
U Q W
1500 J 2200 J 700 J
(b)
U Q W
1500 J 2200 J 3700 J

Example 2 An Ideal Gas
The temperature of three moles of a monatomic ideal gas is reduced

from 540K to 350K as 5500J of heat flows into the gas.
Find (a) the change in internal energy and (b) the work done by the
gas.
U U f U i Q W U 32 nRT
(a)
U 32 nRT f 32 nRTi
3
2
3.0 mol 8.31 J mol K 350 K 540 K 7100 J
(b) W Q U 5500 J 7100 J 12600 J

15.4 Thermal Processes
A quasi-static process is one that occurs slowly enough that a uniform

temperature and pressure exist throughout all regions of the system at all
times.
isobaric: constant pressure
isochoric: constant volume
isothermal: constant temperature
adiabatic: no transfer of heat

An isobaric process is one that occurs at

constant pressure.
W Fs P As PV
Isobaric process:
W PV P V f Vi
Example 3 Isobaric Expansion of Water
One gram of water is placed in the cylinder and

the pressure is maintained at 2.0x105Pa. The
temperature of the water is raised by 31Co. The
water is in the liquid phase and expands by the
small amount of 1.0x10-8m3.
Find the work done and the change in internal

energy.
W PV

2.0 105 Pa 1.0 10 8 m3 0.0020J
U Q W 130 J 0.0020 J 130 J

Q mcT 0.0010 kg 4186 J kg C 31 C 130 J
isochoric: constant volume
U Q W Q
W 0
15.5 Thermal Processes Using and Ideal Gas
ISOTHERMAL EXPANSION OR COMPRESSION
Isothermal
expansion or Vf
compression of W nRT ln
an ideal gas Vi
15.5 Thermal Processes Using and Ideal Gas
ADIABATIC EXPANSION OR COMPRESSION
Adiabatic
W 32 nRTi T f
expansion or
compression of
a monatomic
ideal gas
PiVi Pf V f
Adiabatic
expansion or
compression of
a monatomic
ideal gas
cP cV
Properties of Four Thermodynamic Processes
Process Condition Mathematical Expression
Isobaric Pressure in the U 0; Q 0; W 0; so W = P(V2-V1) which means, the
(constant-pressure system does not net work done by the system is equal to the change in
process) change volume times the pressure.
Isothermal Temperature and If T = 0, U = 0; so Q = W

(constant-temperature internal energy of Means that heat is removed. The energy added to the
process) the system are system by the work done on it; or energy added to the
constant system by heat is removed by the work done on the system.
Isovolumic If V = 0, the PV = 0; W = 0; so U = Q
/ isometric / Volume of the Which means, the systems internal energy increases
Isochoric system does not when the energy added to the system by heat is positive
(constant-volume change; no work (Q>0) and the systems internal energy decreases when the
process) done energy removed from the system by heat is negative (Q <
0).
Since Q = 0, so U= - W
Adiabatic No heat enters or Which means, a negative work done on the system
(no heat transfer leaves the system (W<0), meaning the surroundings work on the system,
process) increases the systems internal energy; while a positive
work done on the system (W>0), meaning the system works
on the surroundings, decreases the systems internal
energy.
When Q is positive (+), an amount of heat Q is added to a system,
Q is negative (-) an amount of heat Q is removed
from the system,
When W is positive (+), work is done by the system,
W is negative (-), work is done on the system,
cp cv = R / M where R is the universal gas constant.
The Kinetic theory of gases indicates that for monatomic gases (as He, Ne),
cv = (3/2) R/M and
cp = (5/2) R/M; and
for diatomic gases at ordinary temperatures (as N2,O2,CO),

cv, = (5/2) R/M and
cp = (7/2) R/M.
The ratio cp/cv, is denoted by y (gamma).

For monatomic gases = 5/3 = 1.67; and
for diatomic gases at ordinary temperature = 7/5 = 1.40.

15.7 The Second Law of Thermodynamics
The second law is a statement about the natural tendency of heat to

flow from hot to cold, whereas the first law deals with energy conservation
and focuses on both heat and work.
THE SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS: THE HEAT FLOW STATEMENT
Heat flows spontaneously from a substance at a higher temperature to a substance

at a lower temperature and does not flow spontaneously in the reverse direction.
15.8 Heat Engines
A heat engine is any device that uses heat to

perform work. It has three essential features.
1. Heat is supplied to the engine at a relatively

high temperature from a place called the hot
reservoir.
2. Part of the input heat is used to perform

work by the working substance of the engine.
3. The remainder of the input heat is rejected

to a place called the cold reservoir.
QH magnitude of input heat
QC magnitude of rejected heat
W magnitude of the work done

15.8 Heat Engines
The efficiency of a heat engine is defined as

the ratio of the work done to the input heat:
W
e
QH
If there are no other losses, then
QH W QC
QC
e 1
QH
15.8 Heat Engines
Example 6 An Automobile Engine
An automobile engine has an efficiency of 22.0% and produces

2510 J of work. How much heat is rejected by the engine?
W
e QH W QC
QH
W
QH
e
15.8 Heat Engines
QH W QC
W
QH
e
QC QH W
W 1
QC W W 1
e e
1
2510 J 1 8900 J
0.220
15.9 Carnots Principle and the Carnot Engine
A reversible process is one in which both the system and the

environment can be returned to exactly the states they were in
before the process occurred.
CARNOTS PRINCIPLE: AN ALTERNATIVE STATEMENT OF THE SECOND

LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
No irreversible engine operating between two reservoirs at constant temperatures

can have a greater efficiency than a reversible engine operating between the same
temperatures. Furthermore, all reversible engines operating between the same
temperatures have the same efficiency.
The Carnot engine is useful as an idealized

model.
All of the heat input originates from a single

temperature, and all the rejected heat goes
into a cold reservoir at a single temperature.
Since the efficiency can only depend on

the reservoir temperatures, the ratio of
heats can only depend on those temperatures.
QC TC

QH TH
QC TC
e 1 1
QH TH
Example 7 A Tropical Ocean as a Heat Engine
Water near the surface of a tropical ocean has a temperature of 298.2 K, whereas
the water 700 meters beneath the surface has a temperature of 280.2 K. It has
been proposed that the warm water be used as the hot reservoir and the cool water
as the cold reservoir of a heat engine. Find the maximum possible efficiency for
such and engine.
TC
ecarnot 1
TH
TC 280.2 K
ecarnot 1 1 0.060
TH 298.2 K
15.10 Refrigerators, Air Conditioners, and Heat Pumps
Refrigerators, air conditioners, and heat pumps are devices that make
heat flow from cold to hot. This is called the refrigeration process.
QC
Refrigerator or Coefficien t of performanc e
air conditioner W
The heat pump uses work to make

heat from the wintry outdoors flow
into the house.
Example 10 A Heat Pump
An ideal, or Carnot, heat pump is used to heat a house at 294 K. How much
work must the pump do to deliver 3350 J of heat into the house on a day when
the outdoor temperature is 273 K?
QC TC TC
QC QH
QH TH TH
W QH QC
TC
W QH 1
TH
TC 273 K
W QH 1 3350 J 1 240 J
TH 294 K
heat QH
pump Coefficien t of performanc e
W
15.11 Entropy
In general, irreversible processes cause us to lose some, but not necessarily

all, of the ability to do work. This partial loss can be expressed in terms of
a concept called entropy.
Carnot QC TC
QC QH
engine
QH TH
TC TH
Q
entropy
change S
T R
reversible
15.11 Entropy
Entropy, like internal energy, is a function of the state of the system.
Q
S
T R
Consider the entropy change of a Carnot engine. The entropy of the

hot reservoir decreases and the entropy of the cold reservoir increases.
QC QH
S 0
TC TH
Reversible processes do not alter the entropy of the universe.

15.11 Entropy
What happens to the entropy change of the universe in an

irreversible process is more complex.
15.11 Entropy
Example 11 The Entropy of the Universe Increases
The figure shows 1200 J of heat spontaneously flowing through

a copper rod from a hot reservoir at 650 K to a cold
reservoir at 350 K. Determine the amount by which
this process changes the entropy of the
universe.
15.11 Entropy
QC QH 1200 J 1200 J
S universe 1.6 J K
TC TH 350 K 650 K
15.11 Entropy
Any irreversible process increases

the entropy of the universe. S universe 0
THE SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS STATED

IN TERMS OF ENTROPY
The total entropy of the universe does not change when a

reversible process occurs and increases when an irreversible
process occurs.
15.11 Entropy
Example 12 Energy Unavailable for Doing Work
Suppose that 1200 J of heat is used as input for an engine

under two different conditions (as shown on the right).
Determine the maximum amount of work that can be obtained

for each case.
TC W
ecarnot 1 e
TH QH
15.11 Entropy
The maximum amount of work will be achieved when the

engine is a Carnot Engine, where
TC 150 K
(a) ecarnot 1 1 0.77
TH 650 K
W ecarnot QH 0.771200 J 920 J
TC 150 K
(b) ecarnot 1 1 0.57
TH 350 K
W ecarnot QH 0.571200 J 680 J
The irreversible process of heat through the copper

rod causes some energy to become unavailable.
15.12 The Third Law of Thermodynamics
THE THIRD LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
It is not possible to lower the temperature of any system to absolute

zero in a finite number of steps.
Electric Forces and
Electric Fields
18.1 The Origin of Electricity
The electrical nature of matter is inherent

in atomic structure.
mp 1.6731027 kg
mn 1.675 10 27 kg
me 9.1110 31 kg
e 1.60 10 19 C
coulombs
In nature, atoms are normally

found with equal numbers of protons
and electrons, so they are electrically
neutral.
By adding or removing electrons

from matter it will acquire a net
electric charge with magnitude equal
to e times the number of electrons
added or removed, N.
q Ne
Example 1 A Lot of Electrons
How many electrons are there in one coulomb of negative charge?
q Ne
q 1.00 C
N 6.25 1018
e 1.60 10 C
-19
18.2 Charged Objects and the Electric Force
It is possible to transfer electric charge from one object to another.
The body that loses electrons has an excess of positive charge, while
the body that gains electrons has an excess of negative charge.
LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ELECTRIC CHARGE
During any process, the net electric charge of an isolated system remains
constant (is conserved).
Like charges repel and unlike

charges attract each other.
18.3 Conductors and Insulators
Not only can electric charge exist on an object, but it can also move
through an object.
Substances that readily conduct electric charge are called electrical

conductors.
Materials that conduct electric charge poorly are called electrical

insulators.
18.5 Coulombs Law
COULOMBS LAW
The magnitude of the electrostatic force exerted by one point charge

on another point charge is directly proportional to the magnitude of the
charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between
them.
q1 q2 8.85 10 12 C 2 N m 2
F k
r2
k 1 4o 8.99 109 N m 2 C 2
18.5 Coulombs Law
Example 3 A Model of the Hydrogen Atom
In the Bohr model of the hydrogen atom, the electron is in orbit about the
nuclear proton at a radius of 5.29x10-11m. Determine the speed of the
electron, assuming the orbit to be circular.
q1 q2
F k
r2
18.5 Coulombs Law
F k
q1 q2

8.99 10 9 2 2

N m C 1.60 10 19
C 2
8.22 10 8 N
r2 5.29 10 11
m
2
F mac mv2 r
v Fr m
8.22 10 N5.29 10
8 11
m 2.18 10 6
ms
9.1110 kg -31
18.5 Coulombs Law
Example 4 Three Charges on a Line
Determine the magnitude and direction of the net force on q1.

18.5 Coulombs Law
F12 k
q1 q2

8.99 10 9

N m 2 C2 3.0 106 C 4.0 106 C 2.7 N
r 2
0.20m2
F13 k
q1 q3

8.99 10 9

N m2 C2 3.0 106 C 7.0 106 C 8.4 N
r 2
0.15m2

F F12 F13 2.7 N 8.4 N 5.7N
18.6 The Electric Field
DEFINITION OF ELECRIC FIELD
The electric field that exists at a point is the electrostatic force experienced
by a small test charge placed at that point divided by the charge itself:

F
E
qo
SI Units of Electric Field: newton per coulomb (N/C)

Example 7 An Electric Field Leads to a Force
The charges on the two metal spheres and the ebonite rod create an electric
field at the spot indicated. The field has a magnitude of 2.0 N/C. Determine
the force on the charges in (a) and (b)
(a)
F qo E 2.0 N C 18.0 108 C 36 108 N
(b)
F qo E 2.0 N C 24.0 108 C 48 108 N
Example 10 The Electric Field of a Point Charge
The isolated point charge of q=+15C is

in a vacuum. The test charge is 0.20m
to the right and has a charge qo=+0.80C.
Determine the electric field at point P.

F
E
qo
q1 q2
F k
r2
q qo
F k
r2

8.99 10 9
N m 2 C 2 0.80 10 6 C 15 10 6 C 2.7 N
0.20m 2
F 2.7 N
E 3.4 106 N C
qo 0.80 10 C
-6
F q qo 1
E k 2
qo r qo
The electric field does not depend on the test charge.
q
Point charge q: Ek
r2
Example 11 The Electric Fields from Separate Charges May Cancel
Two positive point charges, q1=+16C and q2=+4.0C are separated in a

vacuum by a distance of 3.0m. Find the spot on the line between the charges
where the net electric field is zero.
q
Ek
r2
q E1 E 2
Ek
r2
k

16 10 C
6
k
4.0 10 C 6
d2 3.0m d 2
2.03.0m d d 2
2
d 2.0 m
THE PARALLEL PLATE CAPACITOR
charge density
q
Parallel plate E
capacitor o A o
8.85 10 12 C 2 N m 2
18.7 Electric Field Lines
Electric field lines or lines of force provide a map of the electric field
in the space surrounding electric charges.
Electric field lines are always directed away from positive charges and
toward negative charges.
Electric Potential Energy
and the
Electric Potential
19.2 The Electric Potential Difference
DEFINITION OF ELECTRIC POTENTIAL
The electric potential at a given point is the electric potential energy

of a small test charge divided by the charge itself:
EPE
V
qo
SI Unit of Electric Potential: joule/coulomb = volt (V)
EPE B EPE A WAB

VB VA
qo qo qo
EPE WAB
V
qo qo
Example 1 Work, Potential Energy, and

Electric Potential
The work done by the electric force as the

test charge (+2.0x10-6C) moves from A to
B is +5.0x10-5J.
(a) Find the difference in EPE between these

points.
(b) Determine the potential difference between

these points.
WAB EPE A EPE B
EPE B EPE A WAB

VB VA
qo qo qo
(a) WAB EPE A EPE B
EPE B EPE A WAB 5.0 105 J
(b)
WAB 5.0 105 J

VB VA 25 V
qo 2.0 10 C
-6
Example 4 The Conservation of Energy
A particle has a mass of 1.8x10-5kg and a charge of +3.0x10-5C. It is released from

point A and accelerates horizontally until it reaches point B. The only force acting
on the particle is the electric force, and the electric potential at A is 25V greater than
at B. (a) What is the speed of the particle at point B? (b) If the same particle had a
negative charge and were released from point B, what would be its speed at A?
1
2 mvB2 EPEB 12 mvA2 EPEA
1
2 mvB2 12 mvA2 EPEA EPEB
1
2 mvB2 12 mvA2 qo VA VB
(a) 1
2 mvB2 qo VA VB
vB 2qo VA VB m

2 3.0 10 5 C 25 V 1.8 10 5 kg 9.1 m s
(b) v A 2qo VA VB m

2 3.0 10 5 C 25 V 1.8 10 5 kg 9.1 m s
19.3 The Electric Potential Difference Created by Point Charges
kqqo kqqo
WAB
rA rB
WAB kq kq
VB VA
qo rA rB
Potential of a kq
point charge V
r
Example 5 The Potential of a Point Charge
Using a zero reference potential at infinity,

determine the amount by which a point charge
of 4.0x10-8C alters the electric potential at a
spot 1.2m away when the charge is
(a) positive and (b) negative.
(a)
kq
V
r

8.99 109 N m 2 C 2 4.0 108 C
1.2 m
300 V
(b)
V 300 V
Example 6 The Total Electric Potential
At locations A and B, find the total electric potential.

VA
8.99 10 9

N m 2 C2 8.0 108 C

8.99 109 N m 2 C2 8.0 108 C
240 V
0.20 m 0.60 m
VB
8.99 10 9

N m 2 C2 8.0 108 C

8.99 109 N m 2 C2 8.0 108 C
0V
0.40 m 0.40 m
19.5 Capacitors and Dielectrics
A parallel plate capacitor consists of two

metal plates, one carrying charge +q and
the other carrying charge q.
It is common to fill the region between

the plates with an electrically insulating
substance called a dielectric.
THE RELATION BETWEEN CHARGE AND POTENTIAL

DIFFERENCE FOR A CAPACITOR
The magnitude of the charge in each place of the

capacitor is directly proportional to the magnitude
of the potential difference between the plates.
q CV
The capacitance C is the proportionality constant.
SI Unit of Capacitance: coulomb/volt = farad (F)

THE DIELECTRIC CONSTANT
If a dielectric is inserted between the plates of

a capacitor, the capacitance can increase markedly.
Eo
Dielectric constant
E
THE CAPACITANCE OF A PARALLEL PLATE CAPACITOR
Eo q o A
V Eo
E
d
A
q o V
d
o A
Parallel plate capacitor
filled with a dielectric C
d
20.12 Capacitors in Series and Parallel
q q1 q2 C1V C2V C1 C2 V
Parallel capacitors CP C1 C2 C3
20.12 Capacitors in Series and Parallel
q q 1 1
V V1 V2
q
C1 C2 C1 C2
1 1 1 1
Series capacitors
CS C1 C2 C3
ENERGY STORAGE IN A CAPACITOR
Energy 12 CV 2
Volume Ad
A
Energy 12 o Ed
2
Energy density Energy

Volume 12 o E 2
Electric Circuits
20.1 Electromotive Force and Current
In an electric circuit, an energy source and an energy consuming device

are connected by conducting wires through which electric charges move.
Within a battery, a chemical reaction occurs that transfers electrons from

one terminal to another terminal.
The maximum potential difference across the terminals is called the

electromotive force (emf).
The electric current is the amount of charge per unit time that passes
through a surface that is perpendicular to the motion of the charges.
q
I
t
One coulomb per second equals one ampere (A).
If the charges move around the circuit in the same direction at all times,
the current is said to be direct current (dc).
If the charges move first one way and then the opposite way, the current is
said to be alternating current (ac).
Example 1 A Pocket Calculator
The current in a 3.0 V battery of a pocket calculator is 0.17 mA. In one hour
of operation, (a) how much charge flows in the circuit and (b) how much energy
does the battery deliver to the calculator circuit?
(a)
q I t 0.17 103 A 3600 s 0.61 C
0.61 C3.0 V 1.8 J

Energy
(b) Energy Charge
Charge
Conventional current is the hypothetical flow of positive charges that would

have the same effect in the circuit as the movement of negative charges that
actually does occur.
20.2 Ohms Law
The resistance (R) is defined as the

ratio of the voltage V applied across
a piece of material to the current I through
the material.
20.2 Ohms Law
OHMS LAW
The ratio V/I is a constant, where V is the

voltage applied across a piece of mateiral
and I is the current through the material:
V
R constant or V IR
I
SI Unit of Resistance: volt/ampere (V/A) = ohm ()

20.2 Ohms Law
To the extent that a wire or an electrical

device offers resistance to electrical flow,
it is called a resistor.
20.2 Ohms Law
Example 2 A Flashlight
The filament in a light bulb is a resistor in the form

of a thin piece of wire. The wire becomes hot enough
to emit light because of the current in it. The flashlight
uses two 1.5-V batteries to provide a current of
0.40 A in the filament. Determine the resistance of
the glowing filament.
V 3.0 V
R 7.5
I 0.40 A
20.3 Resistance and Resistivity
For a wide range of materials, the resistance

of a piece of material of length L and cross-
sectional area A is
L
R
A
resistivity in units of ohmmeter

L
R
A
Example 3 Longer Extension Cords
The instructions for an electric lawn mower suggest that a 20-gauge extension
cord can be used for distances up to 35 m, but a thicker 16-gauge cord should
be used for longer distances. The cross sectional area of a 20-gauge wire is
5.2x10-7m2, while that of a 16-gauge wire is 13x10-7m2. Determine the
resistance of (a) 35 m of 20-gauge copper wire and (b) 75 m of 16-gauge
copper wire.
(a) R

L 1.72 108 m 35 m
1.2
A 5.2 10 m
-7 2
(b) R

L 1.72 108 m 75 m
0.99
A 13 10 m
-7 2
o 1 T To
temperature coefficient
of resistivity
R Ro 1 T To
20.6 Series Wiring
There are many circuits in which more than one device is connected to
a voltage source.
Series wiring means that the devices are connected in such a way
that there is the same electric current through each device.
20.6 Series Wiring
Example 8 Resistors in a Series Circuit
A 6.00 resistor and a 3.00 resistor are connected in series with

a 12.0 V battery. Assuming the battery contributes no resistance to
the circuit, find (a) the current, (b) the power dissipated in each resistor,
and (c) the total power delivered to the resistors by the battery.
20.6 Series Wiring
V V1 V2 IR1 IR2 I R1 R2 IRS
Series resistors RS R1 R2 R3
20.7 Parallel Wiring
Parallel wiring means that the devices are

connected in such a way that the same
voltage is applied across each device.
When two resistors are connected in

parallel, each receives current from the
battery as if the other was not present.
Therefore the two resistors connected in

parallel draw more current than does either
resistor alone.
V V 1 1 1
I I1 I 2
V V
R1 R2 R1 R2 RP
parallel resistors
1 1 1 1

RP R1 R2 R3
20.6 Series Wiring
V 12.0 V
(a)
RS 6.00 3.00 9.00 I 1.33 A
RS 9.00
P I 2 R 1.33 A 6.00 10.6 W

2
(b)
P I 2 R 1.33 A 3.00 5.31 W

2
(c) P 10.6 W 5.31 W 15.9 W

Example 10 Main and Remote Stereo Speakers
Most receivers allow the user to connect to remote speakers in addition

to the main speakers. At the instant represented in the picture, the voltage
across the speakers is 6.00 V. Determine (a) the equivalent resistance
of the two speakers, (b) the total current supplied by the receiver, (c) the
current in each speaker, and (d) the power dissipated in each speaker.
1 1 1 3
(a) RP 2.67
RP 8.00 4.00 8.00
Vrms 6.00 V
(b) I rms 2.25 A
RP 2.67
Vrms 6.00 V Vrms 6.00 V

(c) I rms 0.750 A I rms 1.50 A
R 8.00 R 4.00
(d) P I rms Vrms 0.750 A 6.00 V 4.50 W
P I rms Vrms 1.50 A 6.00 V 9.00 W

20.9 Internal Resistance
Batteries and generators add some resistance to a circuit. This resistance

is called internal resistance.
The actual voltage between the terminals of a battery is known as the

terminal voltage.
20.9 Internal Resistance
Example 12 The Terminal Voltage of a Battery
The car battery has an emf of 12.0 V and an internal

resistance of 0.0100 . What is the terminal voltage
when the current drawn from the battery is (a) 10.0 A
and (b) 100.0 A?
(a) V Ir 10.0 A0.010 0.10 V
12.0 V 0.10 V 11.9V
(b) V Ir 100.0 A0.010 1.0 V
12.0 V 1.0 V 11.0V

20.10 Kirchhoffs Rules
KIRCHHOFFS RULES
Junction rule. The sum of the magnitudes of the currents directed

into a junction equals the sum of the magnitudes of the currents directed
out of a junction.
Loop rule. Around any closed circuit loop, the sum of the potential drops
equals the sum of the potential rises.
Example 14 Using Kirchhoffs Loop Rule
Determine the current in the circuit.

I 12 6.0 V I 8.0 24
V
potentialrises
potentialdrops
I 0.90 A
20.4 Electric Power
ELECTRIC POWER
When there is current in a circuit as a result of a voltage, the electric

power delivered to the circuit is:
P IV
SI Unit of Power: watt (W)
Many electrical devices are essentially resistors:
P I IR I 2 R
V V2
P V
R R
20.4 Electric Power
Example 5 The Power and Energy Used in a

Flashlight
In the flashlight, the current is 0.40A and the voltage

is 3.0 V. Find (a) the power delivered to the bulb and
(b) the energy dissipated in the bulb in 5.5 minutes
of operation.
20.4 Electric Power
(a) P IV 0.40 A3.0 V 1.2 W
(b) E Pt 1.2 W 330 s 4.0 102 J

20.4 Electric Power
20.4 Electric Power
Waves and Sound
16.1 The Nature of Waves
1. A wave is a traveling disturbance.
2. A wave carries energy from place to place.

Transverse Wave
Longitudinal Wave
16.2 Periodic Waves
Periodic waves consist of cycles or patterns that are produced over and
over again by the source.
In the figures, every segment of the slinky vibrates in simple harmonic

motion, provided the end of the slinky is moved in simple harmonic
motion.
16.2 Periodic Waves
In the drawing, one cycle is shaded in color.
The amplitude A is the maximum excursion of a particle of the medium from

the particles undisturbed position.
The wavelength is the horizontal length of one cycle of the wave.
The period is the time required for one complete cycle.
The frequency is related to the period and has units of Hz, or s-1.
1
f
T
16.2 Periodic Waves
Example 1 The Wavelengths of Radio Waves
AM and FM radio waves are transverse waves consisting of electric and

magnetic field disturbances traveling at a speed of 3.00x108m/s. A station
broadcasts AM radio waves whose frequency is 1230x103Hz and an FM
radio wave whose frequency is 91.9x106Hz. Find the distance between
adjacent crests in each wave.

v f
T
v

f
16.2 Periodic Waves
v 3.00 108 m s
AM 244 m
f 1230 10 Hz
3
v 3.00 108 m s
FM 3.26 m
f 91.9 10 Hz
6
16.3 The Speed of a Wave on a String
The speed at which the wave moves to the right depends on how quickly
one particle of the string is accelerated upward in response to the net
pulling force.
tension
F
v
m L linear density
Example 2 Waves Traveling on Guitar Strings
Transverse waves travel on each string of an electric guitar after the

string is plucked. The length of each string between its two fixed ends
is 0.628 m, and the mass is 0.208 g for the highest pitched E string and
3.32 g for the lowest pitched E string. Each string is under a tension
of 226 N. Find the speeds of the waves on the two strings.
High E
F 226 N
v 826 m s
mL
0.208 10 kg 0.628 m
-3
Low E
F 226 N
v 207 m s
mL
3.32 10 kg 0.628 m
-3
16.5 The Nature of Sound Waves
LONGITUDINAL SOUND WAVES

The distance between adjacent condensations is equal to the

wavelength of the sound wave.
THE FREQUENCY OF A SOUND WAVE
The frequency is the number of cycles

per second.
A sound with a single frequency is called

a pure tone.
The brain interprets the frequency in terms

of the subjective quality called pitch.
THE PRESSURE AMPLITUDE OF A SOUND WAVE
Loudness is an attribute of
a sound that depends primarily
on the pressure amplitude
of the wave.
16.6 The Speed of Sound
Sound travels through gases,

liquids, and solids at considerably
different speeds.
16.6 The Speed of Sound
In a gas, it is only when molecules collide that the condensations and

rerefactions of a sound wave can move from place to place.
3kT
vrms
m
kT k 1.38 1023 J K
Ideal Gas v
m
5 7
or
3 5
16.7 Sound Intensity
Sound waves carry energy that can be used to do work.
The amount of energy transported per second is called the

power of the wave.
The sound intensity is defined as the power that passes perpendicularly

through a surface divided by the area of that surface.
P
I
A
Example 6 Sound Intensities
12x10-5W of sound power passed through the surfaces labeled 1 and 2. The
areas of these surfaces are 4.0m2 and 12m2. Determine the sound intensity
at each surface.
P 12 105 W 5
I1 3.0 10 W m 2
A1 4.0m 2
P 12 10 5 W 5
I2 1.0 10 W m 2
A2 12m 2
For a 1000 Hz tone, the smallest sound intensity that the human ear
can detect is about 1x10-12W/m2. This intensity is called the threshold
of hearing.
On the other extreme, continuous exposure to intensities greater than

1W/m2 can be painful. This intensity is called the threshold of pain.
If the source emits sound uniformly in all directions, the intensity depends
on the distance from the source in a simple way.
power of sound source
P
I
4 r 2
area of sphere
16.8 Decibels
The decibel (dB) is a measurement unit used when comparing two sound
intensities.
Because of the way in which the human hearing mechanism responds to

intensity, it is appropriate to use a logarithmic scale called the intensity
level:
I
10 dBlog
Io
I o 1.00 10 12 W m 2
Note that log(1)=0, so when the intensity

of the sound is equal to the threshold of
hearing, the intensity level is zero.
16.8 Decibels
16.9 The Doppler Effect
The Doppler effect is the

change in frequency or pitch
of the sound detected by
an observer because the sound
source and the observer have
different velocities with respect
to the medium of sound
propagation.
(a) When the fire truck is

stationary, the wavelength of
the sound is the same in front
of and behind the fire truck.
(b) When the fire truck is

moving, the wavelength in
front of the fire truck becomes
smaller, while the wavelength
behind the truck becomes
larger.
SCENARIO 1: MOVING SOURCE

Example 7 The Sound of a Passing Train
A high-speed train is traveling at a speed of 44.7 m/s (100 mi/h) when the
engineer sounds the 415-Hz warning horn. The speed of sound is 343 m/s.
What are the frequency and wavelength of the sound, as perceived by a person
standing at a crossing, when the train is (a) approaching and (b) leaving the
crossing?
A. When the train approaches, the observed frequency is
The observed wavelength is

B. When the train leaves the crossing, the

observed frequency is
In this case, the observed wavelength is

SCENARIO II: MOVING OBSERVER
SCENARIO III: GENERAL CASE

Example 8 An Accelerating Speedboat and the Doppler Effect
A speedboat, starting from rest, moves along a straight line away from a dock.
The boat has a constant acceleration of +3.00 m/s2. Attached to the dock is a
siren that is producing a 755-Hz tone. If the air temperature is 20 C, what is
the frequency of the sound heard by a person on the boat when the boats
displacement from the dock is +45.0 m?
Using vo2 = v0,o2 + 2ax x and fo = fs (1 vo/v).

Algebraically combining the results of the two steps,
Thus, the frequency of the sound heard by the moving observer is

17.2 Constructive and Destructive Interference of Sound Waves
When two waves always meet condensation-to-condensation and

rarefaction-to-rarefaction, they are said to be exactly in phase and
to exhibit constructive interference.
17.2 Constructive and Destructive Interference of Sound Waves
When two waves always meet condensation-to-rarefaction, they are

said to be exactly out of phase and to exhibit destructive interference.
17.3 Diffraction
The bending of a wave around

an obstacle or the edges of an
opening is called diffraction.
17.4 Beats
Two overlapping waves with slightly different frequencies gives rise

to the phenomena of beats.
17.4 Beats
The beat frequency is the difference between the two sound

frequencies.
17.5 Transverse Standing Waves
v
String fixed at both ends f n n n 1, 2, 3, 4,
2L
17.5 Transverse Standing Waves
v
f n n n 1, 2, 3, 4,
2L
17.6 Longitudinal Standing Waves
A longitudinal standing wave pattern on a slinky.

v
Tube open at both ends f n n n 1, 2, 3, 4,
2L
Example 6 Playing a Flute
When all the holes are closed on one type of

flute, the lowest note it can sound is middle
C (261.6 Hz). If the speed of sound is 343 m/s,
and the flute is assumed to be a cylinder open
at both ends, determine the distance L.
v
f n n n 1, 2, 3, 4,
2L
nv 1343 m s
L 0.656 m
2 f n 2261.6 Hz
v
Tube open at one end f n n n 1, 3, 5,
4L
The Reflection of
Light: Mirrors
25.2 The Reflection of Light
LAW OF REFLECTION
The incident ray, the reflected ray, and the normal

to the surface all lie in the same plane, and the angle
of incidence equals the angle of reflection.
25.2 The Reflection of Light
In specular reflection, the reflected rays are parallel to each

other.
25.3 The Formation of Images by a Plane Mirror
The persons right hand becomes

the images left hand.
The image has three properties:
1. It is upright.
2. It is the same size as you are.
3. The image is as far behind the
mirror as you are in front of it.
A ray of light from the top of the chess piece reflects from the mirror.
To the eye, the ray seems to come from behind the mirror.
Because none of the rays actually emanate from the image, it is

called a virtual image.
Conceptual Example 1 Full-Length Versus Half-Length Mirrors
What is the minimum mirror height necessary for her to see her full
image?
Conceptual Example 2 Multiple Reflections
A person is sitting in front of two mirrors that intersect at a right angle.

The person sees three images of herself. Why are there three, rather
than two, images?
25.4 Spherical Mirrors
If the inside surface of the spherical mirror is polished, it is a concave

mirror. If the outside surface is polished, is it a convex mirror.
The law of reflection applies, just as it does for a plane mirror.
The principal axis of the mirror is a straight line drawn through the
center and the midpoint of the mirror.
A point on the tree lies on the principal axis of the concave mirror.
Rays from that point that are near the principal axis cross the axis
at the image point.
Light rays near and parallel to the principal axis are reflected
from the concave mirror and converge at the focal point.
The focal length is the distance between the focal point and
the mirror.
The focal point of a concave mirror is halfway between

the center of curvature of the mirror C and the mirror at B.
f 12 R
Rays that lie close to the principal axis are called paraxial rays.
Rays that are far from the principal axis do not converge to a single
point. The fact that a spherical mirror does not bring all parallel
rays to a single point is known as spherical abberation.
When paraxial light rays that are parallel to the principal axis
strike a convex mirror, the rays appear to originate from the focal
point.
f 12 R
25.5 The Formation of Images by Spherical Mirrors
CONCAVE MIRRORS
This ray is initially parallel to the principal axis

and passes through the focal point.
This ray initially passes through the focal point,

then emerges parallel to the principal axis.
This ray travels along a line that passes through

the center.
When an object is located between the focal point and a concave mirror,
an enlarged, upright, and virtual image is produced.
CONVEX MIRRORS
Ray 1 is initially parallel to the principal axis and appears to originate from
the focal point.
Ray 2 heads towards the focal point, emerging parallel to the principal axis.
Ray 3 travels toward the center of curvature and reflects back on itself.
The virtual image is diminished in size and upright.

25.6 The Mirror Equation and Magnification
f focal length
do object distance
di image distance
m magnificat ion
Derivation of Mirror Equation
B
A C
q
p
These diagrams are used

to derive the mirror equation.
1 1 1

do di f
hi di
m
ho do
Example 5 A Virtual Image Formed by a Convex Mirror
A convex mirror is used to reflect light from an object placed 66 cm in

front of the mirror. The focal length of the mirror is -46 cm. Find the location
of the image and the magnification.
1 1 1 1 1
0.037 cm 1
d i f d i 46 cm 66 cm
di 27 cm
di
m
27 cm
0.41
do 66 cm
Summary of Sign Conventions for Spherical Mirrors
f is for a concave mirror.

f is for a convex mirror.
do is if the object is in front of the mirror.

d o is if the object is behind the mirror.
di is if the object is in front of the mirror (real image).

di is if the object is behind the mirror (virtual image).
m is for an upright object.

m is for an inverted object.
The Refraction of
Light: Lenses and
Optical Instruments
26.1 The Index of Refraction
Light travels through a vacuum at a speed c 3.00 108 m s
Light travels through materials at a speed less than its speed

in a vacuum.
DEFINITION OF THE INDEX OF REFRACTION
The index of refraction of a material is the ratio of the speed

of light in a vacuum to the speed of light in the material:
Speed of light in vacuum c

n
Speed of light in the material v
26.1 The Index of Refraction
26.2 Snells Law and the Refraction of Light
SNELLS LAW
SNELLS LAW OF REFRACTION
When light travels from a material with

one index of refraction to a material with
a different index of refraction, the angle
of incidence is related to the angle of
refraction by
n1 sin 1 n2 sin 2
Example 1 Determining the Angle of Refraction
A light ray strikes an air/water surface at an

angle of 46 degrees with respect to the
normal. Find the angle of refraction when
the direction of the ray is (a) from air to
water and (b) from water to air.
(a) sin 2
n1 sin 1

1.00 sin 46
0.54
n2 1.33
2 33
n1 sin 1 1.33sin 46
(b) sin 2 0.96
n2 1.00
2 74
APPARENT DEPTH
Example 2 Finding a Sunken Chest
The searchlight on a yacht is being used to illuminate a sunken

chest. At what angle of incidence should the light be aimed?
2 tan 1 2.0 3.3 31
n2 sin 2 1.33sin 31
sin 1 0.69
n1 1.00
1 44
Apparent depth,
observer directly
above object
n2
d d
n1
26.6 Lenses
26.7 The Formation of Images by Lenses
RAY DIAGRAMS
Thank You!
COLLEGE PHYSICS 2
ENGINEERING REVIEW
by
MARLYN G. JOVER, ChE,

MAEd, MSPhysics

Physics 2 - Starts Heat JULY 2017

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COLLEGE PHYSICS 2

Engineering Review Outline

Temperature and Expansion Kirchhoffs Laws

Temperatures are reported in degrees

Temperatures changed, on the

LINEAR THERMAL EXPANSION OF A SOLID

The length of an object changes when its temperature changes:

Common Unit for the Coefficient of Linear Expansion:

Example 3 The Buckling of a Sidewalk

A concrete sidewalk is constructed between

y 3.00047 m2 3.00000 m2 0.053 m

VOLUME THERMAL EXPANSION

The volume of an object changes when its temperature changes:

Common Unit for the Coefficient of Volume Expansion:

Example 8 An Automobile Radiator

A small plastic container, called the coolant reservoir, catches

Vspill 0.53 quarts 0.066 quarts 0.46 quarts

Heat is energy that flows from a higher-

SI Unit of Heat: joule (J)

The heat that flows from hot to cold

It is not correct to say that a substance

SOLIDS AND LIQUIDS

HEAT SUPPLIED OR REMOVED IN CHANGING THE TEMPERATURE

The heat that must be supplied or removed to change the temperature of

Common Unit for Specific Heat Capacity: J/(kgCo)

1 kcal = amount of heat needed to raise the temp of 1 g of water by 1 C.

1 cal = amount of heat needed to raise the temp. of 1 kg of water by 1 C.

Mechanical Equivalence of Heat

James Joule (1818 1889) realized that performing mechanical work

1 kcal = 4186 joule

Convection is the process in which heat is carried from one place

Conduction is the process whereby heat is transferred directly through

One mechanism for conduction occurs when the atoms or molecules

By means of collisions, the more energetic molecules pass on some of

The amount of heat Q that is conducted through the bar depends on

1. The time during which conduction takes place.

CONDUCTION OF HEAT THROUGH A MATERIAL

The heat Q conducted during a time t through a bar of length

Example 4 Layered insulation

One wall of a house consists of plywood backed

Find the amount of heat conducted

But first we must solve for the interface temperature.

0.030 J s m C A25.0 C T t 0.080 J s m C AT 4.0 Ct

Radiation is the process in which

A material that is a good absorber

A material that absorbs completely

The atomic mass is given in atomic

One mole of a substance contains as many

The number of atoms per mole is known as

N A 6.022 1023 mol 1

The mass per mole (in g/mol) of a substance

For example Hydrogen has an atomic mass

An ideal gas is an idealized model for real gases

The condition of low density means that the

At constant volume the pressure

At constant temperature, the pressure is

The pressure is also proportional

THE IDEAL GAS LAW

The absolute pressure of an ideal gas is directly proportional to the Kelvin

Example 2 Oxygen in the Lungs

In the lungs, the respiratory membrane separates tiny sacs of air

1.9 10 0.14 2.7 10

Consider a sample of an ideal gas that is taken from an initial to a final