CELLULAR LEVEL OF Evy

Sulistyoningrum
ORGANIZATION
 REFERENCES

Mescher AL, 2011 , Histologi Dasar Junquiera, Teks dan Atlas,

Edisi 12, Penerbit EGC, Jakarta
Martini Karleskint, 1998, Foundation of Anatomy and
Physiology, Prentice Hall
Scanlon, Sanders; Essential of anatomy and Physiology
Lodish, Molecular Cell Biology
Alberts, Biology of the Cell
 OUTLINES

Introduction
Cell structure
Cellular transport mechanism
Genetic code
Cell division
 CELL: BASIC CONCEPTS: CELL THEORY

Cells are the building blocks of all plants and

animals.
Cells are produced by the division of preexisting
cells
Cells are the smallest units that perform all vital
physiological functions
Each cell maintains homeostasis at the cellular
level.

Homeostasis at the tissue, organ, organ system, and

organism levels reflects the combined and
coordinated actions of many cells
CELLS
Cells
 CELL CLASSIFICATION

General:
Somatic cell
Sex cell
Structural
Procaryotic cell: no nuclear membrane
Eucaryotic cell: nucleus surrounded by membrane
 CELL STRUCTURE

Cellular membrane
Cytoplasm
Cytosol
Intracellular structure/organelles
Nucleus, Endoplasmic reticulum, Mitochondria,
Lysosomes
Inclusion bodies
lipid droplets, glycogen granules, lipofuchsin
granules
Cytoskeleton
Microtubule, intermediate filaments, microfilaments
 CELL MEMBRANES FUNCTION

Physical isolation
Regulation of exchange with the environment
selective permeability
entry of ions and nutrients
elimination of wastes, release of secretions
Sensitivity communication
First affected by changes in the extracellular fluid
Contains a variety of receptors
Structural support
Specialized connections between cell membranes
or between membranes and extracellular materials
 CELL MEMBRANE

Plasma membrane/plasmalemma
Components:
Lipids
Phospholipid, cholesterol
Protein
Integral protein
Peripheral protein
Carbohydrates
Glycoprotein
Glycolipid
Proteogycan
TRILAMINARY STRUCTURE= MEMBRANE
UNITS

7,5-10 nm
MEMBRANE PROTEIN
 MEMBRANE PROTEINS FUNCTION

Anchoring proteins attach cell membrane

to other structures
Recognition proteins (identifiers)
Enzymes
Receptor proteins sensitive to specific
extracellular molecules (ligands)
Carrier proteins bind and transport
molecules across membrane
Channels forms a passageway
leak & gated channels
MEMBRANE PROTEIN
MEMBRANE PROTEIN
MEMBRANE PROTEIN
 CY TOSOL

Soluble components inside cells membrane

[potassium] >>, [sodium] <<
extracellular fluid: [potassium] <<, [sodium] >>
Contains :
Carbohydrates <<
amino acids >>
Lipids >>
Insoluble materials known as inclusions
 ORGANELLES

Membraneous organelles
Endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus,
Lysosomes, Peroxisomes, mitochondria,
nucleus

Non-membraneous organelles
Ribosomes, proteasomes,
 RIBOSOMES

Manufacture proteins
Number varies with the type of cell
Dense granules, 25 nm, basophilic
Ribosome consists: 60% RNA (rRNA) and 40% protein
Consists of two subunits:
small ribosomal subunit
large ribosomal subunit
Types of functional ribosomes :
free ribosomes
fixed ribosomes
Polisomes
 THE ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM

Network of membranes connected to nuclear envelope

Cisternae: hollow tubes, flattened sheets, and chambers
Functions:
Synthesis proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids
Storage synthesized molecules or materials absorbed
from the cytosol
Storage of calsium (Muscle cells Sarcoplasmic
Reticulum)
Transport
Detoxification
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
 CONTD.

Types of ER :
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum:
no ribosomes
synthesis of lipids and carbohydrates
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum :
Outer surface contains fixed ribosomes
Synthesis proteins
chemical modification and packaged for export to
Golgi apparatus
Most of ER products are packaged into small
vesicles pinch off the tips of the cisternae
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
 GOLGI APPARATUS

Cisternae : stacks of membranes

2 faces of cisternae
Cis face near ER
Trans face near plasma membrane
Communicate with the ER and with the cell surface by
the formation, movement, and fusion of vesicles
Functions:
modifies and packages secretions for release through
exocytosis
Renews or modifies the cell membrane.
Packages special enzymes within vesicles
GOLGI APPARATUS

Figure 3.20a
 GOLGI APPARATUS

Types of Golgi vesicles:

Secretory vesicles
vesicles containing secretions that will be discharged
from the cell by exocytosis
Membrane renewal vesicles
Empty vesicles transported to plasma membrane
Lysosomes
vesicles contain digestive enzymes
ROLE OF THE GOLGI APPARATUS

35
 LYSOSOMES

Vesicles containing digestive/hydrolitic enzymes

Cell digestion and cells components renewal
Functions:
Digest ingested parts of bacteria, viruses, and toxins
Degrade nonfunctional organelles
Breakdown non-useful tissue
Breakdown bone to release Ca 2+ (osteoclast)
Autolysis
Numerous in cells with large activity of phagocytosis
(macrophage, neutrophil, etc)
36
 LYSOSOMES

Primary lysosomes fuses with the

phagosomes/endosomes secondary lysosome
enzyme activation break down the lysosomal
contents nutrients reenter the cytosol
remaining material residual bodies exocytosis
 PEROXISOMES

Vesicles containing oxidases and catalases

Smaller than lysosomes
Produced by the growth and subdivison of existing
peroxisomes
Their numbers are highest in metabolically active cells
Functions:
absorb and break down fatty acids
Detoxify harmful or toxic substances
Neutralize dangerous free radicals (highly reactive
chemicals with unpaired electrons)
38
 ENDOMEMBRANE SYSTEM

System includes:
Nuclear envelope, smooth and rough ER, lysosomes,
vacuoles, transport vesicles, Golgi apparatus, and the
plasma membrane
System of organelles that function to:
Produce, store, and export biological molecules
Degrade potentially harmful substances

39
ENDOMEMBRANE SYSTEM

40
 MITOCHONDRIA

Largest organelles, variety of shapes

Number varies with the cell's energy demands
Mitochondria have double membrane
Outer membrane surrounds organelle
Inner membrane: contains numerous folds (cristae)
Intermembrane space: between inner and outer
membrane
Many folds in inner membrane = cristae increase
the surface area exposed to the fluid contents (matrix)
Matrix contains metabolic enzymes catalyze energy
production reactions
Cellular respitration energy source of the cell (ATP)
MITOCHONDRIA
INTRACELLULAR RESPIRATION
 NUCLEUS

Components: nuclear envelope, nucleoli,

chromatin, nucleoplasm
Gene-containing control center of the cell
Contains the genetic library with blueprints for
nearly all cellular proteins
Dictates the kinds and amounts of proteins to
be synthesized

44
 NUCLEAR STRUCTURE

Nuclear envelope
surrounds the nucleus
double membrane, separated by a narrow perinuclear
space
At several locations connected to the RER
Nuclear pores:
chemical communication between the nucleus and
the cytosol
permit the movement of ions and small molecules
contains regulatory proteins: transport specific
proteins and RNA into or out of the nucleus
NUCLEUS

46
Figure 3.28a
 CONTD.

Nucleoplasm: contains
nuclear matrix, a network of filaments provides
structural support and involved in the regulation of
genetic activity
ions, enzymes, RNA and DNA nucleotides, small amounts
of RNA, and DNA.
Nucleoli
nuclear organelles that synthesize ribosomal RNA
assemble the ribosomal subunits
composed of RNA, enzymes, and histones
Most prominent in protein-manufacture cells
 CHROMOSOME AND CHROMATIN

Nucleus contains DNA in chromosomes

Each chromosome contains DNA strands bound to
histones and coiled nucleosome
Non-dividing cell chromosomal material is loosely
coiled fine filaments (chromatin)
Chromosomes become visible when cell division
begins
Chromosomes are copied chromatid
Each chromatid joined together at centromere,
surrounded by a protein complex ( kinetochore)
NUKLEUS & CHROMOSOM
CHROMOSOM
CHROMOSOME
 NON-MEMBRANEOUS ORGANELLES:
CY TOSKELETON

The skeleton of the

cell
Elaborate series of rods
running through the
cytosol
Dynamic
Consists of:
Microtubules
Microfilaments
Intermediate filaments

52
53
 MICROTUBULES

Hollow tubes made of tubulin, 25 nm

Continuously remodeling
Microtubules extend outward MTOC into periphery
Functions:
Cell strength and rigidity
Anchoring major organelles
Changing the shape of the cell assisting in cell
movement
Provide axis for the intracellular movement assisted by
molecular motors
Form the spindle apparatus, centriol, cilia, and flagella
54
MICROTUBULES
MICROTUBULES ORGANIZING COMPLEX
 MOTOR MOLECULES

Protein complexes that function in motility

Powered by ATP
Attach to receptors on organelles
Kinesin : away from MTOC
Dynein : toward MTOC

57
MOTOR MOLECULES

58
 MICROFILAMENT

Dynamic strands of the protein actin

< 7 nm in diameter
Functions:
Anchor cytoskeleton to the cell membrane
strengthens cell surface
Actin filaments:
Determine the consistency of the cytoplasm
Actin-myosin: produce active movement
Attach to Cellular Adhesion Molecules cellular
adhesion & movement
Function in endocytosis and exocytosis
 INTERMEDIATE FILAMENTS

Tough, insoluble protein fibers with high tensile

strength
: 7-11 nm
Intermediate between microfilaments and thick
filaments
Functions:
provide strength and stability to cell shape
Stabilize the positions of organelles
Stabilize the position of the cell
Resist pulling forces on the cell
Help form desmosomes

60
 CLASSIFICATION OF INTERMEDIATE
FILAMENTS
Based on protein structure
Type I (acidic keratin), ex: Epithelial keratin
Type II (basic keratin)
Type III, Ex: Desmin, peripherin, vimentin, GFAP
Type IV, Ex: Neurofilamen, internexin
Type V, Ex: Lamin
Type VI, Ex: Nestin
CYTOSKELETON
 CILIA

Motile cellular extensions on exposed surfaces of

certain cells
Contain nine pairs of microtubules surrounding a
central pair 9+2 array
Anchored to a compact basal body situated just
beneath the cell surface
"beat" rhythmically Stiff during the effective
power stroke and flexible during the return stroke.
Function: moves fluids or secretions across the
cell surface
63
CILIA
CILIA

65
Figure 3.27a
CILIA

Figure 3.27b
66
CILIA

67
Figure 3.27c
 FLAGELLA
Resemble cilia, but much longer
9+2 array
Move cells through the surrounding fluid
Sperm cell
 MICROVILLI

Small, finger-shaped projections of the cell

membrane
Increase the surface area of the cell
Ex: Cells lining the digestive tract, proximal
convoluted tubule
Stiffen by core of microfilaments
Each microvillus anchored to the cytoskeleton at
the terminal web
MICROVILLI
 CENTRIOLES

Cylindrical structure composed of short microtubules

Microtubules form nine groups, with three in each
group, no central structure 9+0 array
Functions:
Organize mitotic spindle during mitosis
Form the bases of cilia and flagella
Cytoplasm surrounding the centrioles centrosome
Centrosome: start point where microtubules of the
cytoskeleton generally begin and radiate
CENTRIOLES

Figure 3.26a,
72 b
CENTRIOLES & SPINDLE APPARATUS
 MEMBRANE PERMEABILIT Y

Property that determines precisely which substances can

pass the membrane
Selectively permeable
Passage across the membrane:
Passive processes
Active processes
Cellular transport processes:
Diffusion
Carrier-mediated transport
Filtration
Vesicular transport
 DIFFUSION

Movement of molecules from an area of greater to

lesser concentration
Ex: gas exchanges in lungs
Diffusion rates:
Distance
Gradient size
Molecule size
Temperature
Electrical forces
Osmosis: diffusion of water molecules across a
membrane
Ex: water absorption in intestine
DIFFUSION THROUGH MEMBRANE CELL
 CARRIER-MEDIATED TRANSPORT

Carrier-mediated transport
Facilitated diffusion: diffusion with transporter help
Active transport: lesser greater concentration, ATP
help
Carrier transporter:
Cotransport (symport)
Countertransport (antiport)
FACILITATED DIFFUSION
 ACTIVE
TRANSPORT
 FILTRATION

Filtration: water and dissolved materials are

forced through a membrane from an area of
higher pressure to an area of lower pressure
Requires energy mechanical pressure
Ex: filtration in the renal glomerulus
FILTRATION
 VESICULAR TRANSPORT

Materials movement by means of vesicles

Two categories:
Endocytosis: materials move into the cell
Receptor-mediated endocytosis endosomes
Pinocytosis endosomes
Phagocytosis phagosomes
Moving cells
Leukocytes
Exocytosis: materials move out from the cell
ENDO & EXOCY TOSIS
CELLULAR TRANSPORT MECHANISM
 GENETIC CODE

Method of information storage in the DNA strands of

the nucleus
Triplet code: combination of 3 bases, 4 nitrogen base
4 3 : 64 triplet code
One triplet represent current amino acid
Gene
Functional unit of heredity
Contains all the DNA triplets needed to produce one
specific protein.
Contains segments responsible for regulating its own
activity (promoter) or control segment
ends with a "stop" signal
DNA
 PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
Steps:
Gene activation uncoiling process
Transcription forming mRNA from DNA
Processing editing mRNA
Translation mRNA into amino acids

Molecules needed:
DNA DNA polymerase
RNA RNA polymerase
Ribosomes Transcription factor
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
 TRANSCRIPTION

Two DNA strands are complementary

Coding strand: strands contains triplets specific for amino
acids
Template strand contains complementary triplets
template for mRNA production
step 1: attachment of RNA polymerase to the template
strand
step 2: RNA polymerase promotes binding template strand
and complementary nucleotides
each DNA triplet will correspond to a sequence of three
nucleotide bases in the mRNA strand (codon)
step 3: At the "stop" signal, the enzyme and the mRNA
strand detach from the DNA strand, and transcription ends
mRNA exits nucleus
 Coding strand
Template strand
TRANSCRIPTION

Promoter
region
 TRANSLATION

Formation of a linear chain of amino acids

by using the information an mRNA strand
Occurs at a ribosome
Amino acids are provided by transfer RNA
(tRNA)
tRNA molecule has 2 tails:
Anticodon binds complementarily with mRNA
codon
One tail binds an amino acid
TRANSLATION
TRANSLATION
 CELL DIVISION

Cell populations must be maintained by cell division

Produces daughter cells
DNA replication
Mitosis: division of somatic cells
Meiosis: division of sex cells
Cell programmed death: apoptosis
 CELL DIVISION

INTERPHASE
The G 1 Phase G 0 phase
S phase
G 2 phase
Mitosis
Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase

Cytokinesis
CELL DIVISION
CELL DIVISION
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