Chapter 5

Perception, Attitudes,
and Personality
 Learning Goals
Understand human perceptual processes
and how people form impressions of others
Describe types of perceptual error and their
effects on information people get from their
environment
Explain attribution processes and their
effects on perception and attitudes
 Learning Goals (Cont.)
Discuss the nature of attitudes, how they form
and how they change
Explain the different views of human
personality development
Discuss some dimensions of personality and
several personality types
Recognize the effects of different cultures on
perception, attitudes, and personality
 Chapter Overview
Introduction
Perception
Attitudes
Personality
International Aspects of Perception,
Attitudes, and Personality
Ethical Issues in Perception, Attitudes, and
Personality
 Perception, Attitudes,
and Personality
Perception Attitudes

Chapter 5

Personality
 Perception
A cognitive process: lets a person make
sense of stimuli from the environment
Affects all senses: sight, touch, taste, smell,
hearing
Includes inputs to person and choice of
inputs to which the person attends
Stimulus sources: people, events, physical
objects, ideas
Helps adaptation to a changing environment
 Perception (Cont.)
Perceptual process
Target: object of the persons perceptual
process
Threshold: minimum information from target
for the person to notice the target
Detection threshold: point at which person notices
something has changed in her or his environment
Recognition threshold: point at which person can
identify the target or change in the target
See text book Figure 5.1
 Perception (Cont.)
Perceptual process (cont.)
Target emerges from its surrounding context
sometimes slowly, sometimes quickly
Quickly discriminate a high-contrast target
from its background; an ambiguous target takes
more time to see
Contrast can come from the target's size, color,
loudness, or smell
 Perception (Cont.)
Perceptual process (cont.)
People attend more quickly to positively valued
stimuli than to negatively valued stimuli
Example: achievement-oriented employees
notice announcements about promotion
opportunities faster than an employee with less
achievement motivation
 Perception (Cont.)
Perceptual defense: shield self from
negatively valued stimuli
Example: block out annoying sounds
Organizational example: block some feedback
from a supervisor or coworker when it is
negative
 Perception (Cont.)
Perceptual errors: mistakes in the
perceptual process
Perceptual set
Beliefs about a target based on information about
the target or previous experiences with it
Information about the target from any source
Beliefs act like instructions for processing stimuli
from the target
 Perception (Cont.)
Perceptual errors (cont.)
Stereotype: beliefs and perceived attributes
about a target based on the targets group
Examples
American university students: energetic and
spontaneous
Russian university students: orderly and obedient
 Self-Perception:
A View of Self
Self-perception: process by which people
develop a view of themselves
Develops from social interaction within
different groups, including groups
encountered on the Internet
Self-perception has three parts: self-
concept, self-esteem, self-presentation
 Self-Perception:
A View of Self (Cont.)
Self-concept:
Set of beliefs people have about themselves
View people hold of their personal qualities and
attributes
Factors affecting a person's self-concept
Observations of behavior
Recall of past significant events
Effect of the surrounding social context
 Self-Perception:
A View of Self (Cont.)
Self-concept (cont.)
Observations of behavior
People see their behavior, and their situation, in the
same way they see the behavior of other people
Person believes the behavior occurred voluntarily:
concludes the behavior happened because of some
personal quality or attribute
 Self-Perception:
A View of Self (Cont.)
Self-concept (cont.)
Observations of behavior (cont.)
People learn about themselves by comparing
themselves to other people with similar qualities
Example: you may want to assess your abilities to
hold a supervisory position. You compare yourself
to people with backgrounds similar to yours who
have had recent promotions
 Self-Perception:
A View of Self (Cont.)
Self-concept (cont.)
Recall of past significant events and effect of
the surrounding social context
Recall events important in their lives; not error free
Tend to recall events they attribute to themselves
and not to a situation or other people
Often overestimate their role in past events
Place more weight on the effects of their behavior
and less on the surrounding situation or other people
 Self-Perception:
A View of Self (Cont.)
Self-esteem
Emotional dimension of self-perception
Positive and negative judgments people have of
themselves
People with low self-esteem tend to be
unsuccessful; do not adapt well to stressful
events
Those with high self-esteem have the opposite
experiences
 Self-Perception:
A View of Self (Cont.)
Self-awareness
People differ in degree of self-awareness
Two forms
Private self-consciousness: behave according to
attend to inner feelings and standards
Public self-consciousness: behave according to
social standard correct for the situation
 Self-Perception:
A View of Self (Cont.)
Self-presentation
Behavioral strategies people use to affect how
others see them
How they think about themselves
Goals of self-presentation
Affect other people's impressions to win their approval
Increase the person's influence in a situation
Ensure that others have an accurate impression of the
person
 Self-Perception:
A View of Self (Cont.)
Self-presentation (cont.)
Highly conscious of public image: change
behavior from situation to situation. Readily
conform to situational norms
People who want others to perceive them in a
particular way behave consistently in different
situations. They act in ways they perceive as
true to themselves with little regard for the
norms of the situation
 Social Perception:
A View of Others
Social perception: process by which
people come to know and understand each
other
Forming impression of a person: perceiver
first observes the person, the situation, and
the person's behavior
 Social Perception:
A View of Others (Cont.)
Form a quick impression by making a snap
judgment about that person, or
Make attributions and integrate the
attributions to form a final impression
Confirmation biases lead the perceiver to
hold tenaciously to it
 Social Perception:
A View of Others (Cont.)
Elements of social perception
Three sets of clues help form the impression of
another person
Person
Situation surrounding the person
Observed behavior of the person
 Social Perception:
A View of Others (Cont.)
Elements of social perception (cont.)
Developing first impressions
Use different physical aspects of the person: height,
weight, hair color, eyeglasses
Stereotypes based on physical features
Thin men: tense, suspicious, stubborn
Blond women: fun loving
Neatly dressed people: responsible
Stereotypes result from attributing qualities to
people based on previously formed perceptions
 Social Perception:
A View of Others (Cont.)
Elements of social perception (cont.)
Preconceptions about the situations in which
we see the behavior of other people
Develop from experience with the same or
similar situations
Situation raises expectations about behavior the
situation should cause
Example: when two people are introduced, we
expect both parties to acknowledge the other
and probably to shake hands
 Social Perception:
A View of Others (Cont.)
Attribution processes
People use attribution processes to explain the
causes of behavior they see in others
Begins with a quick personal attribution
followed by adjustment based on the
characteristics of the situation
 Social Perception:
A View of Others (Cont.)
Personal attribution
Characteristics of the person such as beliefs,
disposition, or personality, and not the situation,
caused the person's behavior
Example: when you conclude that another
student spends many hours completing a project
because he likes to work hard or values hard
work, you are making a personal attribution
 Social Perception:
A View of Others (Cont.)
Situational attribution
Aspects of the situation, not qualities of the
person, cause the person's behavior
Example: a student worked hard because of the
reward of a good grade
 Social Perception:
A View of Others (Cont.)
Perceiver uses three types of information
when forming an attribution
Consensus information
Distinctiveness information
Consistency information
 Social Perception:
A View of Others (Cont.)
Consensus information
Observe other people in the same or a similar
situation
If other people show the same behavior as the target
person, the situation caused the behavior
If other people behave differently from the target
person, the person caused the behavior
 Social Perception:
A View of Others (Cont.)
Distinctiveness information
Observe the target person in a different
situation
If the response is different in the new situation, the
situation caused the behavior
If the response is the same, the person caused the
behavior
 Social Perception:
A View of Others (Cont.)
Consistency information
Observe the target person in a similar situation,
but at a different time
High consistency: same behavior at both times
Low consistency: different behavior at both times
 Social Perception:
A View of Others (Cont.)
Combine consensus, distinctiveness, and
consistency information to form attribution
Personal attribution: behavior high in
consistency; low in consensus and
distinctiveness
Situational attribution: behavior high in
consensus and distinctiveness; low in
consistency
 Social Perception:
A View of Others (Cont.)
Fundamental attribution error
Observer underestimates situation as cause of
behavior; overestimates the as cause
Explaining their behavior: tend to ascribe
causes to the situation, not to personal qualities
Explaining others behavior: tend to ascribe its
causes to personal qualities, not the situation
 Social Perception:
A View of Others (Cont.)
False consensus
Overestimate the degree to which others agree
with the person's view
Reinforces the view the perceiver has of
another person
 Social Perception:
A View of Others (Cont.)
Integration of attributions to form final
impression: disposition of perceiver
Effects of recent experiences: positive or
negative event just before meeting someone for
the first time can affect the impression of the
person
Mood at time of first meeting:
Positive impressions in a good mood
Negative impressions in a bad mood
 Attitudes
An attitude is a learned predisposition to
respond in a consistently favorable or
unfavorable manner with respect to a given
object
Attitude object: physical objects, issues,
ideas, events, people, places
 Attitudes (Cont.)
Parts of an attitude
Cognitive: perceptions and beliefs about an
attitude object
Affective: feelings about an attitude object
Behavioral intentions: how the person wants
to behave and what a person says about an
attitude object
 Attitudes (Cont.)
Common work attitudes
Organizational commitment
Satisfaction
Job involvement
Play a role in employee turnover
 Attitudes (Cont.)
Some connection between attitudes and
behavior, although not strong
People with strong attitudes about an object
will likely behave in accord with their attitude
Strong positive attitudes about Macintosh
computers leads to buying one
Ardent followers of Jesse Jackson will likely
vote for him
 Attitudes (Cont.)
Attitude formation: affected by the
persons beliefs about an object and the
amount and type of information the person
has about the object
Perceives positive attributes: develops positive
attitude
Perceives negative attributes: develops
negative attitude
 Attitudes (Cont.)
Attitude formation (cont.)
Family upbringing
Peer groups
Work groups
General social experiences
 Attitudes (Cont.)
Attitude change
Something persuades the person to shift his or
her attitudes (persuasive communication)
Norms of a social group can affect a persons
attitude (social norms)
Person becomes uncomfortable with some
aspects of her or his beliefs (cognitive
dissonance)
 Attitudes (Cont.)
Persuasive communication
Advertising
Tries to change cognitive part of attitude
Assumes affective part will also change
Attitude change process
Win targets attention
Understand message
Accept the influence
Remember the message
 Attitudes (Cont.)
Social influence on attitudes
People are embedded in social groups
Feel pressures to conform to norms
If person values membership in group, likely
will align attitudes with the group norms
 Attitudes (Cont.)
Cognitive dissonance
Hold multiple beliefs or cognitions about an
attitude object
Feel tension when discrepancies develop
Motivated to reduce the tension
Change one or more cognitions
Other parts of attitude also change
 Personality
Set of traits, characteristics, and
predispositions of a person
Usually matures and stabilizes by about age
30
Affects how a person adjusts to different
environments
 Personality Theories
Cognitive theory: people develop their
thinking patterns as their life unfolds
Learning theories: behavior patterns
develop from the social environment
Biological theories: personality as
genetically inherited
 Personality Theories (Cont.)
Cognitive theory
Develop thinking patterns as life unfolds
Affects how the person interprets and internalizes
life's events
Cognitive development stages
Reflexive behavior of infant
More complex modes of perception and interpretation of
events
Neither driven by instincts nor unwittingly shaped
by environmental influences
 Personality Theories (Cont.)
Learning theories
Learn behavior from social interaction with
other people
Young child: early family socialization
Continuously learn from social environment:
stable behavior forms the personality
Uniqueness of each personality follows from
variability in social experiences
 Personality Theories (Cont.)
Biological theories
Ethological theory
Develop common characteristics as a result of
evolution
Behavioral characteristics that have helped survival
over generations become inborn characteristics
 Personality Theories (Cont.)
Biological theories (cont.)
Behavior genetics
Individual's unique gene structure affects
personality development
Personality develops from interactions between a
person's genetic structure and social environment
 The Big-Five
Personality Dimensions
Extroversion
High: talkative, sociable
Low: reserved, introverted
Emotional stability
High: calm, relaxed
Low: worried, depressed
Agreeableness
High: cooperative, tolerant
Low: rude, cold
 The Big-Five
Personality Dimensions (Cont.)
Conscientiousness
High: dependable, thorough
Low: sloppy, careless
Openness to experience
High: curious, intelligent
Low: simple, conventional

Assess yourself on each dimension

 Personality Types
Locus of control: people control the
consequences of their actions or are
controlled by external factors
External control: luck, fate, or powerful
external forces control ones destiny
Internal control: believe they control what
happens to them
Assess yourself against each type.
 Personality Types (Cont.)
Machiavellianism
Holds cynical views of other people's motives
Places little value on honesty
Approaches the world with manipulative intent
Maintains distance between self and others
Emotionally detached from other people
Suspicious interpersonal orientation can
contribute to high interpersonal conflict
 Personality Types (Cont.)
Machiavellianism (cont.)
Focus on personal goals, even if reaching them
requires unethical behavior
Suspicious orientation leads to view of
organizational world as a web of political
processes
 Personality Types (Cont.)
Type A personality: a keen sense of time
urgency, focuses excessively on
achievement, aggressive
Type B personality: strong self-esteem,
even tempered, no sense of time urgency

Type A: significant risk factor for coronary heart disease.

 Personality Types (Cont.)
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
Popular personality assessment device
Four bi-polar dimensions
Extroverted (E) - introverted (I)
Sensing (S) - intuitive (I)
Thinking (T) - feeling (F)
Perceiving (P) - judging (J)
Assigns people to one of sixteen types based on
these dimensions
 Personality Types (Cont.)
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
(cont.)
Extroverts look outward; introverts turn inward
Sensers use data; intuitives use hunches
Thinkers are objective; feelers are subjective
Perceivers are flexible; judgers want closure
ESTJ type: extroverted, sensing, thinking, and
judging
 International Aspects of
Perception, Attitudes,
and Personality
Culturally based stereotypes
Swiss: punctual
Germans: task-oriented
Americans: energetic
People who hold these stereotypes experience
surprises when they meet people from these
countries who do not fit the stereotypes
 International Aspects of
Perception, Attitudes,
and Personality (Cont.)
Culturally based stereotypes (cont.)
Project aspects of own culture onto people and
situations in a different culture
Assumes that the new culture mirrors their own
Example: Korean manager visiting Sweden
assumes all women seated behind desks are
secretaries
Such behavior would be inappropriate and
possibly dysfunctional in Sweden where many
women hold management positions
 International Aspects of
Perception, Attitudes,
and Personality (Cont.)
Attitudes about organizational design,
management, and decision making:
U.S. managers: a hierarchical organizational
design helps solve problems and guides the
division of labor in the organization
French and Italian managers: a hierarchical
design lets people know authority relationships
in the organization
 International Aspects of
Perception, Attitudes,
and Personality (Cont.)
Attitudes (cont.)
Italian managers: bypassing a manager to reach
a subordinate employee is insubordination
Swedish and Austrian organizations:
decentralized decision making
Philippine and Indian organizations:
centralized decision making
Conclusion: Organizations that cross national borders and draw
managers from many different countries have high conflict potential.
 International Aspects of
Perception, Attitudes,
and Personality (Cont.)
Personality characteristics
People in individualistic cultures (United
States) have a stronger need for autonomy than
people in group-oriented cultures (Japan)
People in cultures that emphasize avoiding
uncertainty (Belgium, Peru) have a stronger
need for security than people in cultures that
are less concerned about avoiding uncertainty
(Singapore, Ireland)
 Ethical Issues in
Perception, Attitudes,
and Personality
Stereotypes and workforce diversity
Can have inaccurate stereotypes about the
ethics of people with different social, racial,
and ethnic backgrounds
These stereotypes can affect the opinions
people develop about the ethical behavior of
such people in the workplace
 Ethical Issues in
Perception, Attitudes,
and Personality (Cont.)
Self-presentation
Deliberately managing self-presentations so
decisions and behavior appear ethical
Limited experimental evidence suggests one
can favorably manage other people's
impressions of their ethical attitudes
 Ethical Issues in
Perception, Attitudes,
and Personality (Cont.)
Attribution and accountability
Individual responsibility is central to ethical
behavior
Attribution of responsibility to a person: person
behaved ethically or unethically
Attribution of responsibility to the situation:
individual not held accountable
Example: observer believed the person had behaved
unethically because of a directive
Errors in attribution: could conclude that he or
she was not responsible for an unethical act
 Ethical Issues in
Perception, Attitudes,
and Personality (Cont.)
Ethical attitudes
Little reliable and valid information about
ethical attitudes
Some evidence points to the absence of a fixed
set of ethical attitudes among managers
Attitudes about ethics in organizations and
decision making are situational and varying
The morality of behavior and decisions is
determined by their social context, not by
abstract and absolute rules