INTRODUCTION

Man kind needs heat energy for making comfortable room

conditions, for several industrial processes and for electricity
generation
Steam is widely used energy transfer medium.
Steam has the advantage that, it can be raised from water
which is available in abundance and economic is generate
Steam is extensively used for various applications such as
power production, industrial processes, metallurgy factories
chemical plants etc.
Boiler, also called steam generator is an engineering device
which generates steam at constant pressure.
Definition of boiler
A boiler or steam generator is a device used to generate steam
at a desired pressure and temperature by transferring heat
energy produced by burning fuel to water to change it to
steam.
The hot water or steam under pressure is then usable for
transferring the heat to a process. When water at atmospheric
pressure is boiled into steam its volume increases about 1,600
times, producing a force that is almost as explosive as
gunpowder. This causes the boiler to be an equipment that
must be treated with utmost care.
The fluid is contained in the boiler drum called shell and the
thermal energy released during combustion of fuel is
transferred to water and this converts water into steam at the
desired temperature and pressure.
 Applications of boilers
Power generation: Mechanical or electrical power may be
generated by expanding steam in the steam engine or steam
turbine.
Heating: The steam can be used for heating residential and
industrial buildings in cold weather and for producing hot
waters for hot water supply.
Industrial processes: Steam can also be used for industrial
processes such as for sizing and bleaching etc. in textile
industries and other applications like sugar mills, cement,
agricultural and chemical industries.
CLASSIFICATION OF BOILERS
Depending upon their features they can be classified as
BASED ON GEOMETRIC ORIENTATION/AXIS OF SHELL:
a) If the axis of boiler is horizontal then it is called horizontal boiler.
Example:- Lancashire boiler, Locomotive boiler.
b) If the axis of boiler is vertical then it is called vertical boiler.
Example:- Cochran boiler.
c) If the axis of boiler is inclined then it is called inclined boiler.

BASED ON CONTENTS IN THE TUBE:

a)Fire tube boilers:- If the hot gases of combustion from the furnace
pass through the tubes and water is surrounding the tubes is called
fire tube boilers. Example:- Cochran, Lancashire, Locomotive.
b)Water tube boilers:- If the water passes through the tubes and hot
gases surrounding the tubes is called water tube boiler. Example:-
Babcock and Wilcox boiler.
BASED ON MOBILITY OF BOILER:
Stationary boiler:- This boiler cannot be moved easily from one
place to another place. This are used in power generation or process
heating in industries. Example:- Lancashire, Babcock and Wilcox
boiler.
Mobile boiler:- It is portable boiler and can be easily moved. This is
used in marine and locomotive. Example:- Locomotive boiler.

BASED UPON THE FIRING EMPLOYED:

a)Externally fired boilers:- In this boiler the furnace is placed
outside the boiler shell. Generally water tube boilers are externally
fired. Example:- Babcock and Wilcox boiler.
b)Internally fired boilers:- In this boiler the furnace is placed inside
the boiler shell. Generally fire tube boilers are internally fired.
Example:- Lancashire, Cochran boiler.
BASED ON CIRCULATION:
a)Natural circulation boilers:- In this boiler, water flow take place
naturally, by density difference of water. The flow of water and
steam are set up due to density difference resulting from difference
in temperature. Example:- Lancashire, Babcock and Wilcox boiler.
b)Forced circulation boilers:- In this boiler, water flow takes place
by a pump. Example:- Benson boiler, La- mont boiler, Velox boiler.

BASED ON WORKING PRESSURE:

a)High pressure boiler:- The working pressure of this boiler is higher
than 25 bar. Example:- Babcock and Wilcox boiler.
b)Medium pressure boiler:- The range of working pressure of this
boiler is between 10 bar to 25 bar. Example:- Lancashire boiler,
Locomotive boiler.
c)Low pressure boiler:- The range of working pressure is between
3.5 to 10 bar. Example:- Cochran and Cornish boiler.
BASED ON NO OF TUBES IN THE BOILER
a)Single tube boiler:- This boiler having only one fire or water tube
for circulation of hot gases or water. Example:- Cornish boiler.
b)Multi-tube boiler:- This boiler having two or more fire or water
tubes for the circulation of hot gases or water. Example:-
Locomotive, Cochran, Lancashire, Babcock and Wilcox boiler.
REQUIREMENTS OF A GOOD BOILER
Safety.
The boiler should be safe under operating conditions.

Accessibility.
The various parts of the boiler should be accessible for repair and
maintenance.

Capacity.
Should be capable of supplying steam according to the requirements.

Efficiency.
Should be able to absorb a maximum amount of heat produced due to
burning of fuel in the furnace.
REQUIREMENTS OF A GOOD BOILER:
Construction
simple in construction .

Cost
Its initial cost and maintenance cost should be low.

Joints.
The boiler should have no joints exposed to flames.

Ease of starting.
Should be capable of quick starting and loading.
FIRE TUBE BOILERS
In a fire tube boiler, hot gases pass through the tubes and boiler
feed water surrounds these tubes.
These are simple, compact and rugged in construction.
Due to large quantity of water in the drain it requires more time
for steam raising.
The steam attained is generally wet, economical for low pressures.
The output of the boiler is also limited.
Relatively small steam
capacities (12,000 kg/hour)
Low to medium steam
pressures (18 kg/cm2)
Operates with oil, gas or solid
fuels
WATER TUBE BOILERS:
These boilers water is inside the tubes and hot gases are outside the
tubes. Feed water enters the boiler to one drum. This water
circulates through the tubes connected external to drums. Hot
gases which surround these tubes will convert the water in tubes in
to steam. This steam is passed through tubes and collected at the
top of the drum since it is of light weight. The entire steam is
collected in one drum and it is taken out from there. As the
movement of water in the water tubes is high, so rate of heat
transfer also becomes high resulting in greater efficiency.
 SIMPLE VERTICAL BOILER:
This boiler consists of cylindrical vertical shell with a large fire box inside the
shell. Tubular type vertical passage called uptake is provided over fire box for
exhaust of flue gases. The main evaporative surface is provided by a pair of large
water-filled cross-tubes across this firebox and directly exposed to the radiant
heat of the fire.
These tubes are horizontal, or slightly
inclined so as to encourage circulation in
a single direction without turbulence.
At the bottom of fire box fire grate is
provided for burning the fuel.
Man hole and hand holes are provided
in the shell for ease of access and
inspection. Steam generated in shell can
be tapped through a steam stop valve
placed on the crown of shell.
The boiler has the advantage of simple robust construction, in particular
requiring little regular maintenance.

These boilers have steam generation

capacity up to 1000 kg per hour(12,000
kg/hour)
Maximum steam pressure up to 10 bar
Operates with oil, gas or solid fuels.
Size of the boiler ranges from 0.6m to
2m diameter and height from 1.2m to 4
m height
Boiler efficiency is nearly 50%
COCHRAN BOILER
Features and characteristics
The cochran boiler is
Vertical
Multi-tubular
Internally fired
Naturally circulation
Fire tube
Up to maximum steam pressure of 15 bar
Maximum evaporative capacity of 4000 kg of steam per hour
It is suitable for small plants requiring small quantities of steam and
where the floor area is limited.
It consists of a vertical cylindrical shell having dome shaped top where the steam
space is provided. The hemispherical shaped furnace provided at the bottom
most part of the boiler in which the fuel is burnt on a grate. The ash pit is
provided below the grate for collecting ash after regular intervals. The
hemispherical shape furnace without a single weld or seam makes the furnace
strongest structure under compression and suitable to resist the intense heat
produced by the combustion of fuel.
In the furnace, a fire door and a
damper is provided for feeding
coal to the grates and
controlling the amount of air
entering the grate, respectively.
Adjacent to the furnace, the
boiler has a fire brick lined
combustion chamber which is
connected to the furnace
through a small flue pipe. The
furnace and a small flue pipe
are surrounded by water on all
sides.
After the combustion chamber a number of horizontal, equally spaced fire tubes
are provided. The fire tubes are also completely surrounded by water. After
horizontal fire tubes smoke box is provided. After horizontal fire tubes, a smoke
box and a chimney are provided for the discharge of the gases to the atmosphere.
The smoke box is fitted with a door for cleaning and inspecting of fire tubes.

WORKING
Path of Flue gas: The hot flue
gases produced from the burning
of the fuel in furnace rise up and
enter through the small flue pipe
into the combustion chamber.
There after the hot flue gases
pass through the horizontal fire
tubes and the smoke box before
finally discharged to the
atmosphere through the
chimney. The path of hot flue gas
in the boiler is shown by arrows
in Fig
Path of steam flow: The feed water is supplied uniformly to the shell controlled
by a feed check valve. When the boiler is heated, the cold water in the shell courses
down and hot water rises up between the fire tubes by natural circulation due to
convection current and the steam is generated and collected in the steam space
over the water surface of the shell. The circulation of water in the shell is shown by
arrows in Fig. The steam collected in the steam space then passes through the anti
priming pipe where most of the water particles present in the steam are removed
Advantages
Cochran Boiler occupies less floor space.
Construction cost of Cochran Boiler is Low.
Cochran boiler is semi-portable and hence easy to install and transport.
Because of self contained furnace no brick work setting is necessary.
Disadvantages
The capacity of the Cochran boiler is less because of the vertical design.
Cochran Boiler requires high head room space.
Because of the vertical design, it often presents difficulty in cleaning and
inspection.
LOCOMOTIVE BOILER
Features and characteristics
The locomotive boiler is shown in Fig
internally fired,
horizontal,
multi-tubular,
fire tube,
natural circulation,
artificial draft,
portable boiler.
It is so designed that it is capable of meeting the sudden and fluctuating demands
of steam which may be imposed on it because of variation of power and speed.
The steam pressure ranges from 12.6 bar to 21 bar and the capacity varies from
900 to 4000 kg per hour.
It has basically three parts i.e. shell, fire box and smoke box. Figure shows a
general arrangement in locomotive boiler. The fire-box has a combustion chamber
with fire grate at the bottom. For feeding fuel the fire door is used. Hot gases
produced in fire box are diverted by fire brick arch and enter into the fire tubes
surrounded with water. Hot gases pass through the longitudinally placed horizontal
fire tubes to smoke box. The super heater tubes of small diameter are placed inside
the fire-tubes of larger diameter. A smoke box door in front of the smoke box gives
access to fire tubes for cleaning, inspection and repairing of the boiler. A short
chimney is provided discharging the hot gases from smoke box to atmosphere. The
steam dome is located at the centre of the shell from which steam is supplied to
superhaeters to steam engine.
WORKING
Hot gases from fire box passes through a series of fire tubes leaves to atmosphere
through smoke box . Flue gas completes its path only in one pass. Water pumped
into boiler converted to steam and steam is collected over water surface in the
steam dome. The dry saturated steam is then supplied to the steam engine by
turning the lever fitted in the cab. For super heating of steam from steam dome is
directed in to the super heater tubes through the super heater header with the
help of a regulator and lever arrangement.
Because the chimney is short, the draft produced by natural circulation is not
possible so the artificial draft has to the created to drive out the burnt gases. The
artificial draft is created by either motion of steam engine on rails or periodic
rush of spent steam from the steam engine or a blower is mounted at the inlet of
the chimney
Advantages
The compactness,
high steaming capacity,
mobility
low cost of installation.
Weaknesses
Corrosion in the water legs,
not capable of meeting very high overloads,
joint leakages,
sluggishness of water circulation
limited maximum steam pressure of 20 bars are the weaknesses in this boiler.
LANCHSHIRE BOILER
Features and characteristics
Lancashire boiler is
- a stationary or land type,
- fire-tube,
- horizontal straight tubes,
- internally fired,
- natural circulation boiler.
The boiler consists of a long cylindrical external shell(1) built of steel plates in
sections riveted together. It has two large internal flue tubes(2). A fire grate(3) is
also called furnace is provided at one end of the flue tubes on which solid fuel is
burnt. At the end of the fire grate there is a brick arch(5) to deflect the flue gases
upwards. The hot flue gases leaving internal flue tubes passes through the bottom
tube (6). These flue gases move to the front of the boiler where they divide and
flow into side tube (7). The flue gases then enter the main flue (9) which leads
them to chimney. The damper (8) is fitted at one side flues to control the draught
and thus regulate the rate of generation of steam.
 A spring loaded safety valve (10) and stop valve (11) are mounted. A high steam
and low water safety valve (12) is also provided. A perforated feed pipe (14)
controlled by a feed valve is used for feeding water uniformly.
An ant priming pipe (15) is provided to separate out water as far as possible.
A blow-off cock (16) removes mud that settles at the bottom of the boiler by
forcing out some of the water.
The feed water is supplied uniformly to the shell by a perforated feed pipe
controlled by a feed valve. When the boiler is heated, the steam is generated and
collected in steam space over the water surface of the shell. The steam in contact
with the water surface always contains water particles. To remove these water
particles, the steam in the steam space passes through the anti-priming pipe
These boilers have a cylindrical shell 2 m in diameters and its length varies from 8
m to 10 m.
Working pressure range are up to 20 bar
Advantages
Its heating surface area per unit volume at the boiler is considerably large.
Its maintenance is easy.
It is suitable where a large reserve of hot water is needed. This boiler due to the
large reserve capacity can easily meet load fluctuations.
Superheater and economizer can be easily incorporated into the system
Disadvantages
This boiler required more floor space.
This boiler has leakage problem.
It requires more time to generate steam.
It cannot generate high pressure steam if required.
Grates are situated at the inlet of fire tube,
which has small diameter.
So the grate area is limited in this boiler.
Babcock and Wilcox Boiler
This boiler is
a stationary
longitudinal drum,
externally fired,
natural circulation,
water tube boiler. It is suitable for all types of fuels.
Evaporative capacity in this boiler ranges form 1800 to 40,000 kg/h.
Operating pressures ranges from 11.5 to 17.5 bar. But the operating pressures
may be as high as 42 bar
It consists of a steam water drum and several inclined straight water tubes.
Mountings are mounted on drum as shown. The inclined water tubes are
connected with steam water drum with headers. Soot deposition takes place in
mud box which is connected to down take header. The whole assembly of water
tubes, headers and drum is hung in a room made of masonry work and lined with
fire resistance fire bricks. Below the uptake header the furnace of the boiler is
arranged. Bridge wall and baffles made of fire resistant bricks are constructed so
as to facilitate hot gases move upward from the grate area, then downward and
again upwards before escaping to the chimney. The superheating tubes are
arranged above the water tubes for producing superheated steam.
A chimney with damper at the inlet is provided for the exit of the gases and to
regulate the draft.
Path of Flue gas: The hot gases from the furnace first rise upwards and then go
down and then rise up again out side the water tube before it finally come out in
the atmosphere through the chimney. The flow path of hot gases is shown by the
arrows outside the tubes.
Path of steam-water circulation: Feed water is supplied into the drum by a feed
water inlet pipe. As the water in the water tube near the uptake header comes in
contact with the hot gases at higher temperature, that portion of water gets
evaporated. As a result the mixture of hot water and steam from this portion of the
tube rises in the uptake header and then arrives in the steam water drum.
Advantages:
1. The steam generation rate is higher about 20 ton per hour at pressure 10 to 20
bars.
2. The tubes can be replaced easily.
3. The boiler can expand and contract freely.
4. It is easy to repair maintenance and cleaning.
5. It drought loss is low compared to other boiler.
6. The overall efficiency of this boiler is high.
Disadvantages:
1.Initial cost of this boiler is very high.
2.Maintenance cost of this boiler is also very high.
3.The water level must be observed and maintained carefully as there is a flaw of
overheating.
4.It is suitable only for fresh water. Impure and sedimentary water produces
overheating and may also lead to bursting of the tubes.
5.The spare parts are not widely available.
LOEFFLER BOILER
This is a forced circulation type boiler
Uses oil as fuel
Steam generation capacity: 100 tonne/hr
Pressure limit: 140 bar and temperature of 5000C
Use of superheated steam
instead of flue gases for
evaporating feed water.
Hence clean operation
Responds rapidly to
sudden load variation
The feed water from the feed tank is supplied to the economiser by feed pump. Hot
combustion gases coming from the furnace preheats the feed water. The pre heated
feed water from the economiser tubes enters the evaporator drum into which is
also passed two-thirds of the superheated steam generated by the boiler. The
superheated steam gives its superheat to the water in the drum and evaporates it
to saturated steam. The nozzles distribute and mix the superheated steam
throughout the water in the evaporator drum resulting saturated steam.
This Saturated steam is picked
up by the pump and forces at
high pressure through radiant
super heater where hottest flue
gases from the furnace
superheat the steam coming
from evaporator. These flue
gases subsequently pass through
reheater/economizer as shown.
About one-third of the
superheated steam from the
convection super heater passes
to the steam turbine while the
remaining two-thirds is passed
on to evaporator drum.
LAMONT BOILER
Water tube boiler with forced circulation
Steam Generation rate: 50 tonnes/hr
Operating pressure and temperature: 130bar, 3000C
Boiler has vertical shell having three distinct zones having water tubes in
them, namely evaporator section, super heater section and economizer section.
Feed water is fed from feed pump
to pass through economizer tubes.
Hot water from economiser goes
into drum from where hot feed
water is picked up by a
circulating pump. Centrifugal
pump may be steam driven or of
electric driven type. Pump
increases pressure and water
circulates through evaporation
section so as to get converted into
steam and enters back to drum.
Steam available in drum enters
into super heater tubes and after
getting superheated, steam leaves
through steam main.
BENSON BOILER
It is a water tube boiler capable of generating steam at supercritical pressure.
The feed water from the well passes through the economizer where it is pre-heated
by the pre-heat of exhaust hot flue gases.
The feed water after circulation through the economizer flows through the radiant
evaporator tubes.
Water is heated up by the
radiation heat from the
combustion chamber. Here,
part of the water is converted to
steam directly.
The mixture of water and steam
coming out from the radiant
evaporator enters the
convective evaporator tubes.
The hot flue gases passing over
the evaporator tubes transfer a
large portion of heat to the
water by convection.
The steam from the convective evaporator enters the superheater tubes where it is
superheated by the hot flue gases passing over them.
The hot flue gases then passes through the air pre-heater where the air required
for combustion is pre-heated.
Benson boilers generally have steam generation pressure more than critical
pressure and steaming rate of about 130135 tons/hr.
As the Benson boiler operates at
high pressure and temperature,
special alloy materials are required.
drum-less, once through boiler
Pressure limit: 250 bar
BOILER MOUNTINGS AND ACCESSORIES
Fittings and devices which are necessary for the safety and control are known as
boiler mountings
Fitting and devices which are provided to increase the efficiency of the boiler
and help in smooth working of the plant are known as boiler accessories
Fittings essential from safety point of view :
Water level indicators
Safety valves
Combined high steam and low water safety valve
Fusible plug
Fittings essential for control point of view:
Pressure gauge
Stop valve
Feed check valve
Blow-off cock
The important accessories are:
Super heater
Economizer
Air-preheater
BOILER MOUNTINGS
Water level indicator: It is used for knowing the level of water in boiler. It has two
tubes one is front glass tube while other is metal tube. Water level is seen through
glass tube which is made strong enough to withstand high steam pressure and
temperature. Two control cocks are provided for regulating steam and water
passage from boiler to glass tube.

For blow off purpose a blowing cock is also

provided as shown. In case of breakage of
glass tube the possibility of accident is
prevented by providing two balls. As glass
tube breaks the rush of water and steam
carries the two balls with it and closes the
openings for glass tube, thus water and steam
flowing out can be prevented.

Water level indicator

Fusible plug: It is a safety device used for preventing the level of water from
going down below a critical point and thus avoid overheating. Fusible plug is
mounted at crown plate of combustion chamber.
The fusible plug consist of two hollow guns and one conical plug a shown in figure.
A hollow gun metal body is screwed to the fire box crown plate of boiler. Another
hollow gun metal is screwed to the first body. copper plug which is kept and held
firmly in the second hollow metal body by setting low melting point fusible metal
between two metal bodies.
In normal working condition, the upper surface
of fusible plug is covered with water which keeps
the temperature of the plug below its melting
point while other end of plug is exposed to fire or
hot gases. As water level goes down the heat
available from furnace could not be completely
utilized for steam formation and so the
overheating may cause melting of fusible metal.
Fusible metal is a low melting point metal. Thus
upon melting of lining the copper plug falls down
and water falls from this opening onto furnace
and thus quenches fire.
Blow-Off Cock:
The blow-off cock or valve performs the two functions.
(1) To discharge periodically a portion of water which contains mud, scale or
sediments at bottom of boiler vessel while boiler is in operation.
(2) To empty the boiler when necessary for cleaning, inspection and repair.
Hence it is mounted at the lowest part of the boiler. When it is open, water under
the pressure rushes out, thus carrying sediments and mud.

Blow-Off Cock
It is fitted on the boiler shell directly or through the short branch of pipe at lowest
part of the water space. It consists of gun metal conical plug having a rectangular
hole, spindle with yoke a shown in fig. The plug meshes accurately into the mating
casing. The plug spindle is generally rotated by mean of spanner on the top of the
yoke, two vertical slots are provided for fixing spanner.
When rectangular hole of plug is brought in line
with casing hole by rotating spindle, the water
flow out. When the solid portion of the plug is in
front of casing hole (this position shown in the
fig.) the water cannot flow out of boiler.
Steam stop valve: To regulate the flow of steam from boiler to the steam pipe or
from one steam pipe to the other.

Steam Stop valve

The flange of valve body bolted to the boiler at the highest part of steam space.
It consist of valve, valve seat and nut. The main body of valve is made of cast iron.
The lower ends of spindle connected to valve upper and pass through gland and
yoke, and connected with hand wheel. The gland is used to prevent the leakage of
steam.
When steam stop valve is placed directly over the boiler and connected to the
steam pipe line is called the junction valve. If it is placed near to prime mover than
normally called steam stop valve.
Working :
The spindle is rotated by help of a hand wheel.
Due to rotation of spindle the valve move up and
down.
When the valve sits over the valve seat, the
passage of steam is completely closed.
The steam passage may be partially or fully
opened by moving the valve up, help of rotating
the hand wheel.
Feed check valve: It is used to control the supply of water to the boiler & to
prevent the escaping of water from the boiler when the pump pressure is less or
pump is stopped. It permits unidirectional flow of water from feed pump to
boiler shell

Feed check valve

 Construction:
The feed check valve is fitted in the water space of the boiler just below the
normal level of the water.
It consist of non-return valve, water inlet pipe, outlet pipe, spindle, gland and
hand wheel.
outlet pipe of valve connected with boiler and inlet pipe connected with end of
delivery pipe of feed pump.
Working :
Inlet and outlet pipe of valve is
exposes different pressure. At inlet of
valve the feed pump pressure acts and
outlet pipe of valve the boiler pressure
act.
When feed pump is in operation,
the pressure on the feed pump side
(inlet) is more than pressure on the
boiler side (outlet). This pressure
difference lifts the non return
valve, and allows water flow into
boiler.
 Safety Valves :
Function : To release the excess steam when the pressure of steam inside
the boiler increases higher than the safe pressure (maximum pressure).
Safety valve are used to maintain safe pressure inside the boiler.

As soon as pressure of steam inside the boiler increases higher than the
safe pressure, safety valve automatically opens and excess steam rushes
out into the atmosphere still pressure drops down to normal value.

Safety valve is generally mounted on the top of the shell. All boiler should
have at least two safety valves.

The safety valve may be classified as

(a) Dead weight safety valve

(b) Lever safety valve
(c) Spring loaded safety valve
(d) High steam and low water safety valve.
 Dead weight safety valve :

Construction : A valve is placed upon a valve seat which is fixed upon a long
vertical pipe having a flange at the bottom for fixing at the top of the boiler.

The weight carrier

suspended from the top of
the valve which carries
cast iron rings (weight).

The total weight must

be sufficient to keep the
valve on it seat against the
normal working pressure.
 Working:
When the steam pressure exceeds the normal limits, this high pressure
steam creates upward force on valve, thus valve lift with its weights and the
excess steam escapes through the pipe to the outside.
Advantages :
(1) The construction of valve is simple.
(2) It gives satisfactory operation for low pressure and stationary boilers.
Disadvantages :
(1) It is not suitable for moving boilers as the force of the weights should always
work vertically downward.
(2) It is not suitable for high pressure boiler as the weight becomes too large.
Lever safety valve: The advantage of lever safety valve over the dead weight
safety valve is that the heavy dead weight is replaced by a lever with a smaller
weight.
It consists of a valve resting over a valve seat. The valve seat is fixed on a mounting
block, fitted over the boiler shell. One end of the lever is hinged while the other end
carries a weight W as shown in figure. A short strut is placed over the valve.
The thrust of the lever with its weight is transmitted to the valve by the strut.
When the pressure exceeds the normal limit, the upward force on valve is become
higher than the downward thrust on valve due to weight W on lever. Thus the
valve lifted from it seat with it weight and excess steam will come out of the boiler.
The valve then returns back to its original closed position.
The required weight W at the end of the lever for maintaining the pressure P in the
boiler is obtained by taking moments about the hinged point.
i.e.,PaL1 = WL2
Where a = area of the valve exposed to steam,

L1 = distance of valve centre from the

hinged point, and
L2 = distance of the centre of the weight
to the hinged point.
The lever safety valve is used in
stationary boilers only. Lever safety valve
The thrust of the lever with its weight is transmitted to the valve by the strut.
When the pressure exceeds the normal limit, the upward force on valve is become
higher than the downward thrust on valve due to weight W on lever. Thus the
valve lifted from it seat with it weight and excess steam will come out of the boiler.
The valve then returns back to its original closed position.
The required weight W at the end of the lever for maintaining the pressure P in the
boiler is obtained by taking moments about the hinged point.
i.e.,PaL1 = WL2 Where a = area of the valve exposed to steam,
L1 = distance of valve centre from the hinged point, and
L2 = distance of the centre of the weight to the hinged point.
The lever safety valve is used in stationary boilers only.
Spring loaded safety valve:
It consists of a cast iron body having two branch pipes. Two separate valves are placed
over the valve seat as shown in figure. A lever is placed over the valve by means of two
pivots. The lever is held tight at its proper position by means of a spring. One end of
spring is connected with the lever while other end with the body of the valve. The valve is
kept on it seats with help of spring force.
In the normal condition, the downward force due to spring is higher than upward force
applied by steam. The valve is closed due to spring force. When steam pressure exceeds
the normal limit, upward force due to steam pressure is became higher than downward
force due to spring. Thus the valves are lifted from their seats opening the passages for
steam to release out of boiler.
High steam and low water safety valve: This valve has a combined safety
arrangement against
a) high steam pressure in the boiler discharging excess steam when the pressure
of steam rises above a normal pressure
b) low water level in the boiler steam escapes when level of water falls below a
normal level
This valve is generally used in Cornish or Lancashire boiler.
When valve act as safety against high pressure steam in the boiler:
Construction:
High steam and low water safety valve acts like a simple lever safety valve when it
acts as safety against high steam pressure in the boiler. A lever L1,hinged at one
end and loaded at the other end by a weight W, forces valve U upon its seat
through pivot P as shown in Fig.
Operation:
When the steam pressure in the boiler is under normal limit of working pressure:
The upward force exerted by boiler steam on the valve U is balanced by the
downward force of lever system through pivot P. Under this condition, the valve
U, having valve V seated on it, remains on its seat tightly and the steam will not
escape from the boiler
as shown in Fig.
When the steam pressure in the boiler exceeds above the normal limit of working
pressure: The upward force exerted by boiler steam on the valve U is
overpowered the downward force of lever system. Under this condition, the valve
U having valve V seated on it, lifts off automatically from its seat and escapes
the steam through the passage between the valve U and its valve seat to
atmosphere as shown in Fig. (b)until the pressure falls back to the normal working
pressure.
When valve act as safety against low water level in the boiler:
For prevention against low water level the high steam and low water safety valve is
operated by a lever L which is hinged at the fulcrum F inside the boiler as
shown in Fig. A weight W1 is attached to one end of the lever L and a large
floating earthware E to the other end.
By hanging a dead weight
W2 on the lower end of
the spindle S of valve V,
the hemispherical shaped
valve V is forced
downwards on valve U
which act as a seat for
valve V. The knife edge
K of lever L is provided
to push collar C of spindle
S for lifting valve V from
When the water level in the boiler is at normal level The floating earthen ware
E remains in water and whole level system L with its weights is balanced. Under
this condition, the valve V is seated tightly on valve U due to the downward
force of dead weight W2 and the steam will not escape from the boiler as shown in
Fig.
When the level of the water falls, the floating earthen ware E is partly uncovered
thus its weight increases With this increase in weight of earthen ware E as
compared to Weight W1, the lever system L becomes unbalanced and the
earthen ware float E moves in a downward direction. With this movement of
lever the knife edge K provided on lever push the collar C with the spindle and
valve V in the upward direction leaving valve U on its seat and the steam gets
the passage to escape to atmosphere between the valve V and valve U
The relative positions of the air pre-heater, economiser and superheater are shown
in Fig.
Economiser
Function: The function of the economiser is to extract some heat which is carried
away by the flue gases up in the chimney or stack and utilize it for pre-heating the
feed water supplied to the boiler.
Location: It is placed in the path of the flue gases in between the exit from the
boiler and entry into air pre heater/chimney
Temperature of feed water is raised before it is supplied to boiler with the use of an
economizer. So less heat is required for conversion of water to steam. This results
in a fuel saving which improves the economy of the boiler plant. Recovery of
additional heat improves economy of the boiler plant

Lancashire boilers fitted with an economiser

The Greens economizer used with the stationary boilers is shown in Fig. It
consists of a group of vertical cast iron tubes which are fitted between top and
bottom headers. For safety against high pressure, a safety valve is mounted on the
top of the header. Like boiler, it has blow down valve fitted at the bottom to
discharge sediments collected at the bottom of economizer. Scrapers are provided
on the tubes to remove the soot of flue gas deposited on the tubes of the
economiser. The soot thus removed from the tubes is collected in a chamber
provided at the bottom of economizer. The two stop valves, one at the bottom
header and other at the top header, are provided to stop or allow water into and
out of the economizer, respectively.
The feed water from the feed pump first enters into the bottom header of economizer before
it enters into the boiler. From the bottom header the water then passes through the vertical
tubes and reaches into the top header, from where it finally leads into the boiler. At the same
time the flue gas moves around the tubes and gives off their heat to the water flowing inside
the vertical tubes and water is thereby heated in the economizer.
While economizer in operation of water heating, the scrapers provided on the tubes are
moved up and down continuously with the help of chain and gear arrangement so that soot
deposited on the pipes may be removed and maximum efficiency of the economizer may be
achieved as the soot deposit on pipes reduce the heat transfer to water.
A by-pass arrangement as shown in Fig. is provided to isolate the economiser when it is not
required or when it is to be cleaned or repaired. When the economiser is in service, the
damper A is closed while the dampers B and C are opened. When the economiser is not in
service then the dampers B and C is closed and the damper A should be opened.
Advantages of an economiser:
(i) Increase in thermal efficiency of the boiler plant by utilizing waste heat, saving in fuel.
(ii) Hot feed water causes increase in evaporative-capacity.
(iii) Longer life of the boiler as this reduces the temperature difference between different
parts of the boiler
(iv) A large quantity of scale forming impurities may be removed by precipitation due to
pre-heating the feed water.
(v) Dissolved gases such as air or CO2 may also be removed by pre-heating the feed water,
reducing corrosion and pitting.
Disadvantage:
It reduces natural draft as it obstructs the passage of flue gases.

A by-pass arrangement as shown

in Fig. is provided to isolate the
economiser when it is not required
or when it is to be cleaned or
repaired. When the economiser is
in service, the damper A is closed
while the dampers B and C are
opened. When the economiser is
not in service then the dampers B
and C is closed and the damper A
should be opened.
Air Preheater
Function: Like economizer, an air preheater also recovers some portion of the
waste heat of the flue/chimney gases and utilizes it for preheating of air supplied
to the combustion chamber of the boiler.
Location: Air preheater is usually placed after the economiser and before the
gases enters the chimney as shown in Fig
Construction and operation:
Air preheaters can be classified as tubular type, plate type and regenerative type
Tubular type: A tubular type commonly used in smaller boiler plants is shown in
Fig. The hot gases are passed through the tubes and air is forced to flow over the
tubes. To increase the period of contact between the air and hot surface so that air
is effectively heated, air is forced to deflect by using baffles and compelled to move
in a zigzag path for a number of times. The soot and other material carried with
gases are collected in the hopper at the bottom and removed periodically through
the soot gate.
Plate type: In this preheater, alternative gas
and air passages are formed between closely
spaced parallel plates. The air flows through
the alternate spaces of these parallel plates
and flue gas passes through the remaining
passages as shown in fig.

Regenerative type: The hot flue gas and air are made to flow alternatively through
the same path consisting wire mesh as shown in Fig.
The hot flue gasses are made
to pass through wire mesh by
opening valves 1 & 4 and
closing valves 2 & 3.
atmosphere air is passed
through wire mesh by
opening valves 2 & 3 and
closing valves 1 & 4
Advantages of preheating of air:
(1) Waste heat from the flue gases is recovered for heating air and causes a fuel
saving of about 1.5% for each 100C drop in gas temperature.
(2) Inferior grades of coal can be burnt efficiently with preheated air.
(3) Less excessive air is required to burn fuel and thus cost of producing draught
will be less.
(4) Combustion can be more efficient and an intense flame can be achieved in the
furnace. This increases the evaporation rate of the boiler.
Disadvantages:
(i) Increase in the capital and running cost of the preheater as induced draft fan
for removing gases and forced fan for forcing cold air through the air preheater
are used.
Steam super heater
Function: In super heaters, the wet or saturated dry steam is superheated by
increasing steam temperature above its saturation temperature.
Location: The super heater is installed in the path of flue gases after the furnace as
shown in Fig. Sometimes, for bigger boilers, the superheater may be placed in an
independent fire furnace.

It consists of a set of tubes through which wet or saturated dry steam flows and
hot combustion gases pass around these tubes. By this way, the wet or saturated
dry steam takes heat from the flue gases and become superheated.
Classification of Super heaters:
According to the mode of heat reception:
(i) Convective super heaters,
(ii) Radiant super heaters and
(ii) Combination super heaters
Convective super heaters: In the convective super
heaters, the super heaters are placed between or
near the water tubes where the super heater
tubes receive heat by convection from
combustion gases.
(ii) Radiant type super heaters: In the radiation
Position of Convective, radiant
super heaters, the super heaters are placed in the and combination superheaters.
walls of the furnace of a steam boiler where the
super heater tubes receive heat by direct
radiation from fire and re-radiation from
refractory walls.
(iii) Combination type: In combined super
heaters, the steam first enters the radiant super
heater and then the convective super heater. In
this heat of combustion is transferred to the
super heater tubes by radiation and then
convection.
 COMPARISON BETWEEN FIRE TUBE BOILER AND WATER TUBE
BOILER
Fire Tube Boiler
1)Hot gases are inside the tube and
water is outside.
2)Operating Pressure limited to 25 bar.
3)Rate of steam generation is lower.
4)Not suitable for large power plant.
5)Chance of explosion is less due to
low pressure.
6)Floor space requirement is more.
7)Cost is less.
8)Required less skill for efficient and
economic working.
9)For producing process steam.
10)There is no problem of scale
deposition and less problem of
overheating and bursting.
Water Tube Boiler
1)Water is inside the tube and hot gases
outside.
2)Can work under as high pressure as
more than 125 bar.
3)Rate of steam generation is higher.
4)Suitable for large power plant.
5)Chance of explosion is higher due to
high pressure.
6)Floor space requirement is less.
7)Cost is more.
8)Required more skill and careful
attention for efficient and economic
working.
9)For producing steam for power
generation as well as process heating.
10)Small deposition of scale will cause
overheating and bursting of the tubes.