Aircraft Fuel Systems

Aeronautical Engineering
Aircraft Fuel
The purpose of a heat engine whether piston or
turbine is to produce mechanical effort by
converting heat to useful work. The heat is usually
produced by burning liquid fuel in the engine.
When fuel is burned in an engine only a fraction of
the heat released can be turned into useful work.
Clearly those fuels which give the greatest amount
of heat from a given weight and bulk are those
which offer the best value, both in terms of
utilisation of available space and actual cost. The
space aspect is usually of the greatest importance
because of the need to minimise the weight of the
fuel and the space it occupies.
Fuel Types

Reciprocating (Piston) engine fuels

Avgas (Aviation Gasoline)
Turbine engine fuels
Jet A which is Kerosene
Jet B a blend of kerosene and gasoline
Jet A-1 used for operation at extremely
low temperatures
Jet A1 and Jet A are the most common
Characteristics of fuel

Resistance to detonation
Piston engines operate best where
compression pressure and combustion
temperature are high, these high pressures and
temperatures can adversely affect gasoline, if
they are to high the gasoline will not burn in a
controlled manner, but it will explode. This is
known as detonation, this can damage the
engine and a fuel with a high anti-knock value is
necessary to minimse the risk of detonation.
Characteristics of fuel

Calorific Value
Heat represents power, the calorific value of a
fuel is the amount of heat produced per unit
mass of fuel.
Fuels differ in density, and therefore, in energy
content per unit weight or unit volume. Less
dense fuels, such as avgas, have a higher
energy content per unit weight and a lower
energy content per unit volume. The
relationships are reversed for more dense fuels.
Characteristics of fuel

Altitude
As altitude increases air pressure reduces, this
can lead to the fuel in the tank vaporising inside
the tank.
The volatility of a fuel is the measure of a fuels
ability to vaporise.
In aircraft engines an effective compromise must
be achieved between good vaporisation (which
is good for starting) and a tendency for the fuel
to vaporise in the tank. See Vapour Lock.
Characteristics of fuel

Vapour lock
A highly volatile fuel will vaporise easily,
care must be taken to ensure that the
fuel does not vaporise before it is
required. The fuel vapour could cause a
blockage and prevent the fuel from
passing through.
Characteristics of fuel

Stability
The stability of a fuel affects its long term
storage capability. A stable fuel is less likely to
form gummy deposits which might subsequently
damage the engine or fuel systems.
Impurities and corrosion
Neutralising agents are added to aviation fuel to
minimise the corrosive effects of water and other
impurities.
Characteristics of fuel
Freezing Point
Aviation Fuel needs to have a low freezing point
as temperatures can drop significantly due to
altitude or cold weather. If the fuel is frozen it
will not flow through the components of the fuel
system and will result in engine fuel starvation.
Anti-icing additives can be added to improve the
resistance to freezing.
If the operating temperatures could reduce to
within 3C of the freezing point then fuel heaters
must be designed into the system.
Characteristics of fuel

Waxing
Because it is a mixture of more than a thousand individual
hydrocarbons, each with its own freezing point, jet fuel
does not become solid at one temperature the way water
does. As the fuel is cooled, the hydrocarbon components
with the highest freezing points solidify first, forming wax
crystals. Further cooling causes hydrocarbons with lower
freezing points to solidify. Thus, the fuel changes from a
homogenous liquid, to a liquid containing a few
hydrocarbon (wax) crystals, to a slush of fuel and
hydrocarbon crystals, and, finally, to a near-solid block of
hydrocarbons. The freezing point of jet fuel is defined as
the temperature at which the last wax crystal melts, when
warming a fuel that has previously been cooled until wax
Fuel System
Contamination
The higher the viscosity of the fuel, the greater its
ability to hold contaminants in suspension
This is why jet fuels, which have a higher viscosity
than avgas, are also more susceptible to
contamination than avgas
The main contaminants that reduce the quality of
fuel are:
Other petroleum products
Water
Rust
Scale
Dirt
Water Contamination
Water contamination in fuel can be in two
forms:
Dissolved in the fuel
Entrained or suspended in the fuel
Water in fuel can cause icing in the aircraft
fuel system, usually in:
Boost pump screens
Low pressure filters
Large amounts of water can cause engine
stoppage
Contamination Detection
Coarse fuel contamination can be
detected visually
Uncontaminated fuel should be:
Clean
Bright
Contain no perceptible free water
Contamination Detection
(cont.)
Clean means the absence of any readily
visible sediment or entrained water
Bright refers to the shiny appearance of
clean, dry fuel
Free water is indicated by a cloud, haze, or
water slug
Water saturated in fuel is not always visible
Perfectly clear water can contain as much as
three times the acceptable limit
Fuel Systems
The purpose of an aircraft fuel system is to
store and deliver the proper amount of
clean fuel at the correct pressure to the
engine
Fuel systems should provide positive and
reliable fuel flow through all phases of flight
including:
Changes in altitude
Violent maneuvers
Sudden acceleration and deceleration
Fuel Systems (cont.)
Fuel systems should also continuously
monitor system operation such as:
Fuel pressure
Fuel flow
Warning signals
Tank quantity
Types of Fuel Systems
Fuel systems can be classified in two
broad categories:
Gravity-Feed Systems.
Pressure-Feed Systems.
Gravity-Feed Systems
Gravity-Feed Systems use only the
force of gravity to push fuel to the
engine fuel-control mechanism
The bottom of the fuel tank must be
high enough to provide adequate
pressure to the fuel-control
component
This type of system is often used in high-
wing light aircraft
Pressure-Feed Systems
Pressure-Feed Systems require the use of a fuel
pump to provide fuel-pressure to the engines fuel-
control component
There are two main reasons these systems are
necessary:
The fuel tanks are too low to provide enough pressure
from gravity
The fuel tanks are a great distance from the engine
Also, most large aircraft with higher powered
engines require a pressure system regardless of the
fuel tank location because of the large volume of
fuel used by the engines
Fuel System Components
Pumps Quantity Indicators
Tanks Warning
Lines Components
Valves Fuel Drains
Fuel Flow-meters Heaters
Filters and Strainers
Fuel Pumps
Fuel pumps are used to move fuel through
the system when gravity feed is insufficient
The main functions of fuel pumps:
Move the fuel from the tanks to the engines
Move the fuel from one tank to another
Move the fuel form the engine back to the tanks
Jettison the fuel
Fuel-Pump Requirements
Engine fuel systems require main
pumps and in some systems
emergency pumps
These requirements depend on the
type of engines installed on the
aircraft
Fuel Pump Classification
One way to classify fuel pumps is according
to the pumps function
These classifications are:
Boost Pump
Scavenge Pump
Cross-feed Pumps
Jettison Pumps
HP Pump
Fuel Tanks
Fuel systems on different aircraft may
use several types of fuel tanks
The three basic types of fuel tanks
used on aircraft are:
Integral
Rigid Removable
Bladder
Wing Tank
Fuel Lines
Fuel lines on aircraft are either made of rigid
metal tubing or flexible hose
Most of the fuel lines are the rigid type
which are usually made of aluminum alloys
The flexible hose fuel lines are either made
of synthetic rubber or Teflon
The diameter of tubing used is decided by
the engines fuel requirements
Valves
Fuel selector valves are used in aircraft fuel
systems to:
HP Engine Fuel Shut off
Cross-feed
Transfer
Spar Valve (Pylon or LP Valve)
Selector valves may be operated manually
or electrically depending on the installation
Filters & Strainers
Fuel filters or strainers are used to remove
contaminants from the fuel. Strainers are often
fitted in the fuel tank cell or they may be contained
within the fuel pump. Fuel tank strainers have a
comparatively coarse mesh, some being as large as
8 to 1 (25.4mm). Fuel sump strainers are located
at a low point between the fuel tank and the engine
driven pump are a finer mesh usually 40 or more
mesh per inch. The fuel line filters installed in
carburettors and other fuel metering devices may
be screens able to block particles of 40 microns or
more ( 1 micron is 0.001mm).
Boost Pump
Light turbine aircraft typically have DC-powered fuel boost
pumps located in the feed tanks. The electrically powered
pumps primarily are used for engine start. Once the engines
are running, the main engine-driven fuel pumps provide a lot
more fuel than the engine needs to operate. The excess high-
pressure fuel not consumed by the engines is returned to the
fuel system to provide motive flow for jet pumps. Once the
engine driven pumps are supplying the fuel to the engines the
boost pumps are switched off.
On larger aircraft the boost pumps are ac powered are run
continuously, they ensure a positive supply of fuel to the
engine HP fuel pump, thus reducing the chance of vapour
lock.
Vent Float Valve

As the aircraft is refuelled and the fuel

level increases the air within the tank
enters the vent tank as the fuel level
increases the Vent Float Valve is
closed preventing the fuel entering
into the vent tank.
Cross-Feed Valve
Multi-engine aircraft fuel systems are designed so
that each engine is supplied from its own tank.
However means are provided to transfer fuel from
one tank to another and therefore supply the
engines from one tank. The cross-feed valve allows
fuel to flow along the cross-feed pipe to the other
tank.
Water Drain Valve

These are present at the lowest point

in the system. (Water is heavier than
water and will therefore sink to the
bottom of the tank.) The purpose of
the water drain valve is allow the
water to be drained from the fuel
tank. As already discussed water in
the fuel is undesirable and is removed
using the water drain valve.
Spar Valve

Spar valve, Pylon or low pressure shut

off valve. This provides the means to
isolate the fuel between the booster
pump and the high pressure engine
driven pump. The spar valve is
normally located on the front spar of
the wing hence the name. If it is
located in the pylon it may be known
as a pylon valve.
Flap Valves

These are installed at the wing root

ribs, gravity forces the fuel into the
wing root. Under flying conditions the
flap valves prevent the fuel from
leaving the wing root.
Quantity Indicators
Mechanical
Inverted float gauge
Rotating dial gauge
Upright float gauge
Sight-glass gauge
Resistance
Capacitance
Fuel Subsystems
Some aircraft fuel sub-systems allow for fuel:
Jettison

Heating

Cross-Feeding

Refuel/De-fuel

Vent Systems

In flight refuelling.
Fuel System Diagram