Ad Hocnetworks 110112095632 Phpapp01

Outline:
Introduction.
Advantages and Applications.
Cellular VS Ad-Hoc Networks.
Technical Challenges and Issues.
Ad-Hoc Wireless Media Access Protocols.
Ad-Hoc Routing Protocols.
Providing Quality of Service in Ad-Hoc Networks.
Introduction (1):
Multi-hop Wireless Networks (MHWNs):
It is defined as a collection of nodes that communicate with each
other wirelessly by using radio signals with a shared common
channel.
Hop
Path, chain or route
Host Switching Unit

Introduction (2):
There are several names for MHWNs; it could be called packet
radio network, Ad-Hoc network or mobile network.
The nodes here could be named stations or radio transmitters

and receivers.
MHWNs
Ad-Hoc Wireless Sensor

Mesh Networks
Networks Networks
Introduction (3):
Ad-Hoc Networks:
It is a type of MHWNs.
Nodes in the network are mobile in general.
The wireless hosts in such networks, communicate with each
other without the existing of a fixed infrastructure and without a
central control.
A mobile ad-hoc network can be connected to other fixed
networks or to the Internet.
Most of the Ad-Hoc networks use the allocated frequencies for
the Industrial, Scientific and Medical (ISM) band.
Advantages and Applications (1):
Ad-hoc networks have several advantages over the traditional
networks, like:
Ad-hoc networks can have more flexibility.

It is better in mobility.
It can be turn up and turn down in a very short time.
It can be more economical.
It considered a robust network because of its non-hierarchical
distributed control and management mechanisms.
There are lots of applications for Ad-Hoc networks, like:
Group of people with laptops and they want to exchange files and
data without having an access point.
Sharing the internet
Connected to the internet

Incase if we need to exchange information and the network's
infrastructure has been destroyed.
It is suitable for military communications at battlefield where

there is no network infrastructure.
Cellular VS Ad-Hoc Networks:
Cellular Ad-Hoc Networks
Infrastructure networks. Infrastructureless networks.
Fixed, pre-located cell sites and No base station, and rapid
base station. deployment.
Static backbone network topology. Highly dynamic network topologies.
Relatively caring environment and Hostile environment and irregular
stable connectivity. connectivity.
Detailed planning before base Ad-Hoc network automatically
station can be installed. forms and adapts to changes.
High setup costs. Cost-effective.
Large setup time. Less setup time.
Technical Challenges and Issues (1):
There are several challenges that Ad-Hoc network faces such as:
Limited wireless range.
Hidden terminals.
Packet losses.
Routes changes.
Devices heterogeneity.
Battery power constraints.
The main challenges face the Ad-Hoc networks are the following:
Energy conservation: Nodes in Ad-Hoc networks are equipped

with limited batteries.
Unstructured and/or time-varying network topology: Because of

the nodes mobility, that makes the network topology usually
unstructured and makes the optimizing process a difficult task.
Scalability: In some cases, there will be a huge number of nodes.

Low-quality communications: In general, wireless networks are
less reliable than the wired networks. In addition to that, the
quality of the network can be affected by the environmental
factors.
Resource-constrained computation: The resources in Ad-Hoc

networks such as energy and network bandwidth are available in
limited amounts.
In addition to that, Ad-Hoc networks inherit some of the issues
which are faced by the traditional wireless networks, like:
There are no known boundaries for the maximum range that

nodes will be able to receive network frames.
The wireless channel is weak, unreliable, and unprotected from

outside interferences.
The wireless channel has time-varying and asymmetric

propagation properties.
Hidden-node and exposed-node problems may occur.

Hidden-node problem:
Collision
Sender 1 Sender 2
Receiver
Exposed-node problem:
Blocked
By The
Transmitter
Receiver Transmitter Exposed Node

Ad-Hoc Wireless Media Access Protocols (1):
Why do we need for a media access protocol?
The medium is shared by all of the nodes.
If we give the node the freedom to send at any time, then that
could result in a contention.
We can't have a central controller to manage the transmission

process, because every node can move at any time.
Therefore, we will choose from the medium access control (MAC)

protocols in order to use the shred medium in the most efficient
way.
MAC Protocols
Synchronous Asynchronous
MAC Protocols
Sender-Initiated Receiver-Initiated
Sender-Initiated MAC Protocols:
1 RTS
2 CTS
Sender Receiver
3 Data
Receiver-Initiated MAC Protocols:
1 RTR
Sender Receiver
2 Data
Existing Ad-Hoc MAC Protocols:
1. Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (MACA):
It was proposed as a solution for both hidden terminal and

exposed node problems.
It has the ability to control the transmitter power for each
packet.
It uses a three-way handshake, RTS-CTS-Data.
Collisions could occur in MCSA, because there is no carrier
sensing in it.
RTS
CTS
Sender Receiver
2. MACA-BI (By Invitation):
MACS-BI is considered as Receiver-Initiated MAC Protocol.
In MACA-BI, there is no way that the receiver will know whether

the transmitter has a data to transmit or not, which will affect
the communication performance, because of the waiting time
for the RTR messages.
MACA-BI is less likely to have a control packets collision because

it uses half as many control packets as MACA.
3. Power-Aware Multi-Access Protocol with Signaling (PAMAS):
PAMAS is based on the MACA protocol with an extra separated
signaling channel where RTS-CTS handshake occurs.
It reduces the power consumption by turning off all nodes that
are not actively transmitting or receiving.
In PAMAS, each node has the ability to shout down its
transceiver.
There are two conditions where the node has to turn off its
transceiver:
If it doesn't have data to transmit.
If one of its neighbors is transmitting data and another is
receiving.
4. Dual Busy Tone Multiple Access (DBTMA):
It has been proposed to solve the hidden terminal problem.

In BTMA, when node is receiving data, it sends a busy tone
signal to its neighbors. After the hidden terminals sense the busy
tone they refrain from transmitting.
The DBTMA (Dual Busy Tone Multiple Access) is a customization
of BTMA for the Ad-Hoc networks.
In DBTMA, there are two out of band busy tones, one use to
signify transmit busy and the other use to signify receive busy.
Dual Busy Tone Multiple Access (DBTMA) Process
Prohibited Prohibited
TBT RTS
Sender RBT - CTS Receiver

Ad-Hoc Routing Protocols (1):
There are lots of routing protocols which have been developed for
Ad-Hoc networks. When these protocols have been developed, it
has been taken in the consideration the limitations of this type of
network.
Ad-Hoc Mobile
Routing Protocols
Table Driven / On-Demand-

Hybrid
Proactive Driven / Reactive
1. Table-Driven Approaches:
Table-driven routing protocols try to keep the last updated and

stable routing information from each node to the rest of the
nodes in the network.
In this type of routing protocol, each node should maintain at

least one table to store the routing information.
In case of any change in the network topology, the nodes will

propagate the route updates throughout the network in order to
maintain a stable network view.
1.1. Destination Sequenced Distance Vector (DSDV):
The main feature in this protocol is the avoidance of the routing

loops.
Each node here maintains a routing table of all destinations
within the non-partitioned network and the number of hops to
these destinations.
A sequence numbering system is used in order to be able to
distinguish between the old and bad routes from the new ones.
Updates in the routing table are sent periodically to keep the
routing table up-to-date and consistent.
The broadcasts of the new route will contain:
Destination address.
Number of hops to the destination.
Sequence number of the information received regarding the
destination.
New sequence number unique to the broadcast.
Each route is labeled with a sequence number and the route
with the highest sequence number will be used.
If there are two updates have the same sequence number, then
the route with the smaller hop count will be used.
1.2. Wireless Routing Protocol (WRP):
Each routing node in WRP communicates the distance and

second-to-last hop information for all destinations in the
network.
The WRP is classified as one of the path-finding algorithms, but
here the count-to-infinity problem has been avoided by making
each node check the consistency of the predecessor information
reported by its neighbors.
In WRP, each nodes learns about its neighbors from the
acknowledgments and the other messages it's receives.
In case if the node does not have any data to send, it should
send a HELLO message in a specified periodic time to make sure
that the connectivity information is properly reflected.
Routing Table
Hello
Routing Table
New Node Existing Node

Each node here should maintain four tables:
Distance table: contains the number of hops from the node to
all possible destinations.
Routing table: specifies the next hop.
Link-cost table: tells about the delay for each link.
Message retransmission list table: contains information such as
the sequence number of the update message, the
retransmission counter, the list of all the sent updates, etc.
Each node sends a periodic update messages to its neighbors to
ensure that the routing information is accurate.
The update message indicates:

The destination.
The distance to the destination.
The predecessor of the destination.
List of all nodes who should acknowledge the update.
The update message is sent either after the node is finished

from processing the updates which it has received from its
neighbors or if there is any change detected in any link.
1.3. Cluster Switch Gateway Routing (CSGR):
Nodes in CSGR are grouped in clusters and each cluster has a

cluster head which can control a group of Ad-Hoc hosts.
Each time a cluster head moves away, a new cluster head is
selected.
By using the least cluster change (LCC) algorithm, the cluster
head will be changed either if two cluster heads come into
contact or if the node moves away from all other cluster heads.
CSGR is based on the DSDV, but with a little difference that CSGR
uses a hierarchical cluster-head-to-gateway routing approach.
Each node in CSGR maintains two tables:
Cluster member table: where it stores information about the
destination cluster head for all nodes in the networks, and it is
broadcast this table periodically using the DSDV protocol.
Routing table: is used to determine the next hop to reach the
destination.
When routing packets, a node will use the previous two tables to
select the nearest cluster head along the route to the
destination.
2. Source-Initiated On-Demand Approaches:
Here, the routing protocols create routes only when requested
by the source node.
A route discovery process is initiated by the source node.
This process is considered done either after:
finding a route to the destination.
after examined all the possible route permutations.
Once the route is established, it will be maintained by some
form of route maintenance procedure until either the
destination becomes inaccessible or the route is no longer
desired.
2.1. Ad-Hoc On-Demand Distance Vector Routing (AODV):
The AODV routing protocol is based on the DSDV algorithm.
It can minimize the number of required broadcasts by creating

routes on an on-demand basis.
It is considered as a pure on-demand route acquisition system.

The source node does the discovery process by broadcasting a
route request (RREQ) packet to its neighbors, which in their turn
forward the request to their neighbors, and their neighbors do
the same thing, and so on, until either the destination or an
intermediate node with a route to the destination is located.
The RREQ is identified by using the broadcast ID and the node's
IP address.
The source node adds the last sequence number it has for the
destination into the RREQ packet.
The intermediate nodes reply to the RREQ only if they have a
route to the destination with a sequence number equal or
greater than the one included in the RREQ.
2.2. Dynamic Source Routing (DSR):
The DSR protocol is based on the concept of source routing,

where each node is required to maintain route caches that
contain the source routes of which the mobile is aware.
There are two phases in this protocol:

The route discovery phase.
The route maintenance phase.
When node has data to send, it first checks its route cache to see
if it already has an unexpired route to the destination.
Propagation of the route request messages:
N1 -N2 N1 -N2-N5
N1
N1 N3-N4 N1 N3-N4-N7
N1 N3-N4
N1-N3
N1
N1 N3-N4 N1 N3-N4-N6
Propagation of the route replay with the route record :
N1 -N2-N5-N8 N1 -N2-N5-N8
N1 -N2-N5-N8
2.3. Temporally Ordered Routing Algorithm (TORA):
TORA is a source-initiated, loop-free, distributed routing

algorithm based on the concept of link reversal.
This protocol performs three basic functions: route creation,
route maintenance, and route erasure.
During the phases of creating and maintaining the route, nodes
will use a "height" metric to establish a DAG (directed acyclic
graph) rooted at the destination.
Route maintenance process in TORA:
N2 N3
N1 N4 N7
N5 N6
TORA has five elements:
The logical time of link failure.
The unique ID of the node that defined the new reference level.
The reflection indicator bit.
The propagation ordering parameter.
The unique ID of the node.
The invalid routes would be erased in the route erasure phase,

and that is done by flooding a broadcast "clear packet" (CLR)
throughout the network.
3. Location Aided Routing (LAR):
One of the LAR protocol concepts, that it uses the location

information (e.g. by utilizing the GPS) to enhance the
performance of the Ad-Hoc network.
There are two defined zones in LAR:

The expected zone.
The request zone.
Concepts of request zone and expected zone in LAR :
There are several reasons make the location based routing suffer
and fail to operate in the real field, such as:
The GPS is not yet available worldwide.
The positional information from the GPS could come with
deviation.
Some devices do not have GPS receivers.
4. Power Aware Routing (PAR):
In this protocol, battery life is the metric for selecting the route.
5. Zone Routing Protocol (ZRP):
The ZRP is a hybrid routing protocol.
The routing zone in ZRP is similar to the routing zone in CSGR,

but in ZRP, every node acts as a cluster head and a member of
other clusters, and zones can be overlapped.
The ZRP can be subdivided into three sub-protocols:

the proactive (table-driven) Intra-zone Routing Protocol (IARP).
the reactive Inter-zone Routing Protocol (IERP).
the Border-cast Resolution Protocol (BRP).
The IARP can be implemented using link state or distance vector
routing.
The IARP depends on the discovery protocol to detect the

neighbors, and the link connectivity to them.
The IERP depends on the border nodes to search for routing

information to nodes located outside its current zone by
performing on-demand routing.
6. Source Tree Adaptive Routing (STAR):
The STAR protocol is a proactive routing protocol.

In STAR, each node maintains its own source tree.
Each node in STAR knows about its adjacent links and the source
trees of its neighbors, and after it aggregates the adjacent links
with the source trees, it will get a partial topology graph.
Each node derives the routing table from running a route
selection algorithm on its own source tree, and from the routing
table it can know what the successor to any destination is.
Providing Quality of Service in Ad-Hoc Networks (1):
The QoS is defined as a set of measurable pre-specified service
requirements need to be met by the network while transferring
packets from source to destination.
It could be defined as an agreement or a guarantee that the

network will provide a set of measurable service performance
such as end-to-end delay, delay variance (jitter), available
bandwidth, probability of packet loss, cost of transport, total
network throughput, etc.
Providing Quality of Service in Ad-Hoc Networks (2):
There are lots of problems in Ad-Hoc network when providing QoS
such as:
1. Routing problem: It can be defined as the process of finding a

loop free route from the source to the destination which should
also support the requested level of QoS.
2. Maintenance problem: It can be described as how to make sure
that the network will continue support the agreed level of QoS
in case if any change happened in the network topology.
3. Variable resource problem: It deals with the changes in the
available resources and how to react to these changes.

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Outline:

Path, chain or route

Host Switching Unit

The nodes here could be named stations or radio transmitters

Ad-Hoc Wireless Sensor

Ad-hoc networks can have more flexibility.

Sharing the internet

Connected to the internet

It is suitable for military communications at battlefield where

Energy conservation: Nodes in Ad-Hoc networks are equipped

Unstructured and/or time-varying network topology: Because of

Scalability: In some cases, there will be a huge number of nodes.

Resource-constrained computation: The resources in Ad-Hoc

There are no known boundaries for the maximum range that

The wireless channel is weak, unreliable, and unprotected from

The wireless channel has time-varying and asymmetric

Hidden-node and exposed-node problems may occur.

Receiver Transmitter Exposed Node

The medium is shared by all of the nodes.

We can't have a central controller to manage the transmission

Therefore, we will choose from the medium access control (MAC)

1. Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (MACA):

It was proposed as a solution for both hidden terminal and

MACS-BI is considered as Receiver-Initiated MAC Protocol.

In MACA-BI, there is no way that the receiver will know whether

MACA-BI is less likely to have a control packets collision because

It has been proposed to solve the hidden terminal problem.

Sender RBT - CTS Receiver

Table Driven / On-Demand-

Table-driven routing protocols try to keep the last updated and

In this type of routing protocol, each node should maintain at

In case of any change in the network topology, the nodes will

The main feature in this protocol is the avoidance of the routing

Each routing node in WRP communicates the distance and

New Node Existing Node

The update message indicates:

The update message is sent either after the node is finished

Nodes in CSGR are grouped in clusters and each cluster has a

The AODV routing protocol is based on the DSDV algorithm.

It can minimize the number of required broadcasts by creating

It is considered as a pure on-demand route acquisition system.

The DSR protocol is based on the concept of source routing,

There are two phases in this protocol:

TORA is a source-initiated, loop-free, distributed routing

The invalid routes would be erased in the route erasure phase,

One of the LAR protocol concepts, that it uses the location

There are two defined zones in LAR:

The ZRP is a hybrid routing protocol.

The routing zone in ZRP is similar to the routing zone in CSGR,

The ZRP can be subdivided into three sub-protocols:

The IARP depends on the discovery protocol to detect the

The IERP depends on the border nodes to search for routing

The STAR protocol is a proactive routing protocol.

It could be defined as an agreement or a guarantee that the

1. Routing problem: It can be defined as the process of finding a

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