Ecosystems I: Environmental factors

Introduction
The concept of ecosystem
Environmental factors: abiotic factors
Abiotic factors in terrestrial environments
Abiotic factors in aquatic environments
Biotic factors
Intraspecific relationships
Interspecific relationships
Introduction
Ecology is the science which studies the interactions
between organisms and their environment.

The environment of an organism is the set of factors

surrounding the organism and affecting it.

Activity1. Give three examples of environmental factors of the

sandpipers in the picture above.
Introduction
We can distinguish between two types of environmental
factors:
Abiotic factors. Physicochemical factors, non-living
things.
For example, in terrestrial environments, an important group of
abiotic factors is the set of climatic and atmospheric factors:
temperature, rainfall, air composition,... Another important
group of abiotic factors comprises rock and soil factors: soil
texture, soil water content, salinity, rock composition,...
Biotic factors. Living things.

Activity 2. Consider a
rosemary plant in Sierra
Espua. Give three examples of
abiotic factors and three
examples of biotic factors
affecting it.
The concept of ecosystem
A key concept in ecology is the concept of ecosystem.

Ecosystem

Biotope Biocenosis

An ecosystem is a system made up of a biotope and a

biocenosis.

Lets define these components: biotope and biocenosis.

The concept of ecosystem: biotope and biocenosis

A biotope is a natural area with all its abiotic factors.

Normally, more or less uniform conditions are expected
in a biotope.
We can say, then, that the biotope is the nonliving part
of the ecosystem.

A biocenosis is the set of all the populations which live

in a natural area. Remember that a population is all the
organisms, belonging to the same species, which live in
a natural area.
Thus, the biocenosis is the living part of the ecosystem,
comprising all the living things found in a natural area.

We can see an example with a concrete ecosystem: a

pond.
A pond as an example of ecosystem
A pond as an example of ecosystem

Activity 3. Describe three factors of the biotope. Describe also

three components of the biocenosis which show important
differences in their nutrition.
The concept of ecosystem: interactions
Remembre that ecosystems are systems, so we have to
take into account interactions in them.
Ecosystem
3 2
Biotope Biocenosis
1
4

1. There are interactions within the biotope: one

component of the biotope can affect another component
of the biotope.
2. There are interaction within the biocenosis: some
living things can affect other living things.
3. The biotope affects the biocenosis.
4. The biocenosis affects the biotope.
The concept of ecosystem: interactions

Ecosystem
3 2
Biotope Biocenosis
1
4

Activity 4. Consider the example of ecosystem that we have

mentioned before: a pond. For each type of interaction (1-4) write
an example in this ecosystem.
 Environmental factors: abiotic factors
As we said, the environment of an organism consists of abiotic
and biotic factors. The organism is affected by them.
Activity 5. Look at this image. You can see the curve which
represents the response of a species to an environmental factor.
Answer to the following questions:
Environmental factors: abiotic factors
(Activity 5) (a) Explain exactly what the curve represents. What is
represented in each axis?
(b) Zone of tolerance, zone of efficiency, optimal point: explain what
they are.

Zone of tolerance.- The range of the factor in which the species

can live.

Zone of efficiency.- The range of the factor in which the species

can live with a significant number of individuals, so that stable
populations can be maintained.

Optimal point.- The value of the environmental factor

corresponding to a maximum in abundance of the species.
Environmental factors: abiotic factors
We are going to study some important abiotic factors, first in
terrestrial environments, and then in aquatic environments. Abiotic
factors, as we know, affect living things, conditioning distribution
and abundance of organisms.
Living things present adaptations in relation to environmental
factors. Adaptations are characteristics (morphological,
physiological,...) which permit or improve survival in relation to
specific environmental factors, way of life,...
For each abiotic factor, we will study related adaptations.

The cryptic
plumage of the
European nightjar
is an adaptation
against predators.
Environmental factors: abiotic factors in terrestrial environments

Abiotic factors in terrestrial environments

Important abiotic factors in terrestrial environments are

temperature, water availability and light availability.

These three factors are connected. Remember, for example, that

the tilt of the Earths axis and the Earths revolution around the
Sun cause the seasons, so temperature, water and light availability
vary along the year.

Temperature
In general, temperature decreases with latitude, and also with
elevation (altitude). Depending on the climatic zone, temperatures
can be very different, from a mean annual temperature of ~25 C in
the equatorial zone to a mean annual temperature below 0 C in
cold zones.

Activity 6. What is the mean annual temperature in Murcia?

Environmental factors: abiotic factors in terrestrial environments

Temperature affects living things. Plants present adaptations to

temperature. For example, many plants lose their leaves in the cold
season, and reduce their activity. There are plants that spend the
cold season as seeds, or without aerial parts (only with roots and
underground stems).

Activity 7. Answer the following questions, in relation to

adaptations of animals to temperature:
(a) What is the difference between homeotherms and
poikilotherms? What animals are homeotherms?
(b) How are homeotherms adapted to low temperatures? Write
three examples of adaptations.
(c) How are terrestrial poikilotherms adapted to low temperatures?
What is winter diapause?
(d) Write two examples of adaptations to high temperatures.
Environmental factors: abiotic factors in terrestrial environments

Light
Light availability can vary in terrestrial environments, according to
different circumstances:

- Along the year, the length of daylight period in a place varies.

Near the equator, this variation is very small, while in polar areas
is great.

- The amount of light which reaches different parts of terrestrial

environments can be very different. For example, in a tropical
rain forest, the herbs or small plants which are part of the
undergrowth
receive much less light than trees.

Animals have adaptations related to light. For example, the

different types of eyes which have developed in most animal
groups.
Some animals, such as glow-worms, show bioluminescence.
Environmental factors: abiotic factors in terrestrial environments
Plants have adaptations in relation with light.
Activity 8. This plant (Medicago marina) lives in sand dunes,
receiving high light intensity. Do you think that its silvery hairs are
an adaptation to high light intensity? Why?

Other plants start flowering when the daylight period increases

over a limit. It is another example of adaptation related to light.
Environmental factors: abiotic factors in terrestrial environments

Water availability
In general terms, water availability can be related to rainfall, an
element of climate.

Activity 9. (a) Give an example of two tropical or subtropical zones

with very different rainfall, and thus very different water availability
expected.
(b) Give an example of two temperate zones with significantly
different rainfall, and then different water availability expected.

Animals and plants have adaptations to low water availability. We

are going to focus on plant adaptations, but you can write
(Activity 10) an example of adaptations to low water availability in
animals which live in deserts.
Environmental factors: abiotic factors in terrestrial environments

Plant adaptations to low water availability

In dry environments, plants tend to...
- Maximize water uptake;
- Store water;
- Minimize water loss.
Activity 11. For each one of the three abovementioned aspects,
give examples of plant adaptations.
Activity 12. Explain some adaptations which can be appreciated
in the following pictures.
 Environmental factors: abiotic factors in aquatic environments
Abiotic factors in aquatic environments
In aquatic environments, water is abundant and not a limitant factor,
in general. Important abiotic factors are temperature, light, salinity,
pressure, oxygen and mineral nutrients.
Water temperature varies with latitude, and also with depth. Most ocean
water (from c. 300 m deep below) is cold, between 0 C and 3 C.
Salinity can vary greatly. Most rivers and lakes contain fresh water,
while seas and oceans contain salt water. Even in seas, salinity is
highly variable.
Pressure increases with depth.
Dissolved oxygen is necessary for respiration of aquatic organisms. In
organic-polluted waters there are small amounts of oxygen, while well-
aereated clean waters are oxygen-saturated.
Large areas of the ocean are poor in mineral nutrients, but there are
places (Peru coast, Namibia coast) where an outflow of nutrient-rich
water allows high abundance and diversity of organisms.
 Environmental factors: abiotic factors in aquatic environments
As to light availability, light penetrates into the water, but not beyond a
certain depth. Blue light penetrates deeper than other wavelengths.
The euphotic zone or sunlight zone (the upper 100-200 m of the ocean)
has enough light to allow photosynthetic organisms to live
permanently.
The disphotic zone (until 300-500 m), below the euphotic zone, is poorly
illuminated. Photosynthetic organisms cannot live permanently.
No light reaches the aphotic zone, below.
 Environmental factors: abiotic factors in aquatic environments

There are different types of aquatic organisms, according to the zone

they live:

- Planktonic organisms (plankton) float passively, living on or near the

water surface. Many of them can swim short distances, but their
main form of movement is flowing or drifting with currents. Most
planktonic organisms are very small (protozoa, unicellular algae,
small crustaceans,...), but other are macroscopic, such as jellyfish.

- Nektonic organisms (nekton) swim, not being carried, in general, by

water currents. They move actively in the mass of water. Many fish
are nektonic, and cetaceans, squids,...

- Benthic organisms (benthos) live on the sea floor, or (in aquatic

continental environments) at the bottom of rivers, lakes,... Many of
them move on the bottom, other are motionless (some of them are
sessile, fixed to the substrate). Oysters and other bivalves, starfish,
sea anemones, sponges,... are examples of benthic organisms.
Biotic factors
Biotic factors refer to living things. Within an ecosystem, there are
interactions between organisms.
We can distinguish two types of interactions between organisms:
Intraspecific relationships, between organisms of the same
species.
Interspecific relationships, between organisms of different
species.
Activity 13. Look at this image. What type of interaction is
presented? Describe it.
Biotic factors

Intraspecific relationships

Some of the main intraspecific relationships are the following:

- Family. There are families in mammals and birds, not in other

animal groups. A family is made up of individuals which are (closely)
relatives, generally, parents and offspring. The function is mainly to
bring up the offspring.
Activity 14. Write an example of a long-lasting family and an example
of a short-lasting family.

- Gregarious associations. Individuals of the same species which live

together, at least for a period of time. For example, mammal herds
(zebras, wildebeests,...) or bird folks (seagulls, migratory birds).
Gregarious associations can improve safeness, food searching,...
Activity 15. Have you seen folks of seagulls flying over Murcia? What
is the shape of those folks? Where do they go?
Biotic factors: intraspecific relationships

- Colonies. A colony is a set of genetically identical individuals which

live together, physically joined. For example, a coral is a colony of
polips which share the same skeleton and the same digestive cavity.
Colonies are formed by budding, a type of asexual reproduction.

- Insect societies. There are highly organized societies in bees, ants,

wasps, termites... In these societies there is a jerarchy with different
types of individuals (castes), division of labour and mechanisms of
communication between individuals.
Activity 16. What castes (types of individuals) are distinguished in a
society of bees (a beehive)? (queen, worker, drone) What is the function
of each caste?
Biotic factors: intraspecific relationships

- Intraspecific competition. Organisms of the same species which use

the same resources. They do not need to fight directly for them; they
try to get the resources, so that others cannot use them.

Interspecific relationships

Relationships between organisms of different species are called

interspecific relationships. They can be classified taking into account
if they are possitive or negative for each species.

We are going to describe the main interspecific relationships. But

before, lets do activity 17:

Activity 17. Look at the following pictures. For each picture, answer to
these questions: (a) What organisms are associated? (b) What type of
interspecific relationship is? (c) Explain the benefit or damage obtained
by each species.
Biotic factors: interspecific relationships

1 2

3
Biotic factors: interspecific relationships

5 6

7 8
Biotic factors: interspecific relationships

Some of the main interspecific relationships are the following:

- Mutualism and symbiosis (+/+). In these relationships, both

partners obtain benefit (the interaction is possitive for both). The
difference is that symbiosis is a very close association, both
organisms need to live together, while mutualism is temporary.

Commensalism and inquilinism (+/0). These relationships are

possitive for one of the partners, and neither possitive nor negative for
the other partner. If an organism lives or stays in or on another
organism, getting protection, it is inquilinism; otherwise,
commensalism.

- Parasitism and predation (+/-). One organism gets benefit (parasite,

predator), the other is harmed (host, prey). In predation, one
organism kills another one to feed on it (generally both are animals).
But a parasite does not directly kill its host, the parasite feeds on its
host or lives at the expense of it. The host can eventually die, but not
directly.
Biotic factors: interspecific relationships

- Interspecific competition (-/-). In this relationship, both partners are

harmed (the interaction is negative for both). Different organisms use
a common resource (food, water, light, a place,...), so the presence of
any of them is negative for the other. They do not need to fight
directly for the resource, but sometimes it does happen.

You must know examples of all these interspecific interactions, taking

into account activity 17.

Activity 18. Can you give other examples of interspecific interactions,

different from those considered in activity 17?
Discuss what type of interspecific interaction was presented in activity
13.