CAPE BIOLOGY

UNIT 1

LECTURE 1:

1 THE CHEMISTRY OF LIFE

OBJECTIVES: AT THE END OF THIS
LECTURE YOU SHOULD BE ABLE TO:
Define and give examples of
atoms, molecules, ions, isotopes,
elements, compounds, mixtures
Dispersions: solutions, colloids,
suspensions

Explain
the difference between homogenous &
heterogenous dispersions systems
how different types of binding occur
ionic, covalent, polar 2
INTRODUCTION

There is great diversity in life but there are

some basic unifying substances.
The basic unit of these substances are
chemical in nature and their interaction
with energy is physical in nature.
In order to explore the processes that
sustain living things, we must understand
the chemical and physical nature of these
unifying substances. 3
IMPORTANCE OF CHEMISTRY TO LIFE

Chemical phenomenon
Any natural occurrence involving
changes to atoms or molecules

Chemical reactions occur to sustain life.

Chemistryis therefore necessary for the

explanation of biological properties.

Physical phenomenon
Any natural occurrence involving the 4
interaction of matter and energy
ELEMENTS
Elements are pure substances that
cannot be split into simpler substances
by chemical means.

approx.109 identified,
92 occur naturally and

17 synthesized.

Living organisms contain only about 20.

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ELEMENTS

Elements are denoted by one or two

letters derived from their English or
Latin names
carbon (C), hydrogen (H), sodium (Na),
calcium (Ca) and oxygen (O).

Fourelements (C, H, O, N) make up

over 90 percent of our bodys weight.
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ELEMENTS IMPORTANT TO LIFE
Element Importance
C Organic molecules (Proteins, Carbohydrates, Lipids)
H Organic molecules, Electron transfer
O Organic molecules, Cellular respiration
N Proteins, Nucleic acids, Chlorophyll
Ca Bones, teeth, Conduction of nerve impulses, Muscle
contraction, Blood clotting
Na & K Cations (positive ion) in interstitial fluid, Nerve functions
Cl Anion (negative ion) in interstitial fluid
P Nucleic acids, ATP, Phospholipids (cell membranes)

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ATOMS
The smallest part of an element that can
take part in a chemical change (atomos
indivisible).
The centre is called the nucleus.
Nucleus comprised of positively charged
protons and neutral neutrons .
Nucleus therefore positively charged.
Nucleus orbited by negatively charged
electrons.
The smallest atom, an atom of hydrogen,
consists of one proton and one electron.
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STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM

www.howstuffworks.com/atom.htm
ATOMS

Heldtogether as a unit by the electrical

attraction exerted between the oppositely
charged protons and electrons.

Overallcharge of the atom is neutral

since number of protons equals the
number of electrons

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ATOMS
Allconsist of the same three types of
subatomic particles (protons, neutrons
and electrons).
They are therefore distinguished by the
atomic number.
The atomic number is the number of
protons in the nucleus of an atom.
For example, carbons atomic number is 6
therefore, all carbon atoms have 6 protons, and
conversely, all atoms with 6 protons are 11
carbon.
ATOMS- ISOTOPES
Isotopes are atoms which have the same
number of protons (atomic number) but
different number of neutrons (therefore
different atomic mass).
In nature, a sample of an element will contain
a mixture of various isotopes.
For example, Hydrogen has three isotopes with 0, 1 or 2
neutrons. Hydrogen therefore exists in three different
forms
Hydrogen: Proton = 1; Neutron = 0; Electrons =1
Deuterium: Proton = 1; Neutron = 1; Electrons =1 12
Tritium: Proton = 1; Neutron = 2; Electrons =1
ISOTOPES OF HYDROGEN

Hydrogen Deuterium Tritium

Atomic # 1 Atomic # 1 Atomic # 1
Mass # 1 Mass # 2 Mass # 3
Symbol: Symbol: Symbol:
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ATOMS- ELECTRONS
Electrons
are arranged in shells/ orbitals
around the nucleus.

Each shell can hold a specific amount of

electrons.
1st shell can hold 2 electrons,
2nd shell 8

When one shell is filled, additional electrons go

into the next shell farther away from the
nucleus. 14
ATOMS- ELECTRONS

Nitrogens atom
contains seven
electrons are placed
as follows:
2 in 1st shell,
5 in the next shell
The electronic
configuration is
N= 7 (2:5)
www.webelements.com/

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ATOMS- ELECTRONS
Elements with their outermost shell full of electrons are
usually unreactive e.g., helium, neon.
called the noble gases because they seldom form
compounds with other atoms.
All other elements have a tendency to want to obtain a
full shell through reaction with other elements.
Elements with their outermost shell containing less than
5 electrons are called metals and have a tendency to give
up their electrons to have a full outer shell.
Elements with their outermost shell containing 5 or more
electrons are called non-metals and have a tendency to
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gain additional electrons to fill their outer shell
MAIN ELEMENTS IN LIVING MATTER
Atomic # Electron Shells Valency Mass #
C 6 1s2 2s2 2p2 4 12
H 1 1s1 1 1
O 8 1s2 2s2 2p4 2 16
N 7 1s2 2s2 2p3 3 or 5 14
P 15 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p3 3 or 5 31
S 16 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p4 2 or 6 or 4 32
Valency= # of H atoms that the element can combine with
Atomic #=# of protons (+ charge) =# of electrons (- charge)
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MOLECULES + COMPOUNDS

The atoms of elements can interact with atoms

of the same kind to form larger, more complex
structures called molecules. Eg. H2

A molecule containing two or more types of

elements chemically combined in such a way
that their properties are changed is called a
compound e.g.,
water (hydrogen & oxygen);
glucose (carbon, hydrogen & oxygen);
sodium chloride (sodium & chlorine) 18
 COMPOUNDS
Different atoms are combined in
specific proportions, with a specific
bond. Eg.,
All samples of pure H2O contain, by mass,
H:O in the ratio1:8
When H reacts with O to produce water,
relative amounts of H and O that combine are
always the same.
If 1.0g of H reacts, 8.0g of O is always used.
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 BONDS
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BONDS

Atoms in compounds are held together

by bonds

The main types of chemical bonds are

ionic (transfer of electrons) and
covalent (sharing of electrons)
polar (attraction to opposite poles of a
molecule)
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IONIC BONDS
(TRANSFER OF ELECTRONS)

Some atoms are so electron attracting

(electronegative) that they can capture electrons
from the outer shell of other atoms
Electrons end up being transferred from one atom
to another.
E.g. Formation of Sodium Chloride (NaCl)
Atoms of sodium are being bonded to chlorine

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IONIC BONDS
(TRANSFER OF ELECTRONS)

Number and arrangement of electrons:

Na = 11 (2: 8: 1); Cl = 17 ( 2: 8: 7)
Chlorine will capture the one electron in
the outer shell of sodium.
Cl now has 17 protons and 18 electrons (a
net negative charge). Cl- anion
Na is left with 11 protons and 10
electrons (a net positive charge). Na+
cation 23
IONIC BONDS
(TRANSFER OF ELECTRONS)

Oppositely charged ions attract one another,

forming a linkage called the ionic bond.
Electrically charged particles are called ions.
Positive ions = cations; negative ions = anions.

Ionic bonds usually form between charged

groups that are of large, complex biological
molecules e.g., proteins.
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COVALENT BONDS
(SHARING ELECTRONS)

Electronsin this type of bond are shared

between atoms, so that each has a stable
complete outer energy shell.

Thenumber of bonds that are formed

depends on the number of electrons
needed to fill the outer shell.

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COVALENT BONDS
(SHARING ELECTRONS)

Eg.,hydrogen molecule (H2) consists

of two atoms of hydrogen.

Hydrogen has a single electron in its

outer shell and so can combine with
another hydrogen atom.
This is a single covalent bond.

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COVALENT BONDS

Hydrogen Chlorine
Molecule Molecule

Oxygen molecule
(double covalent bond) 27
COVALENT BONDS
Double (e.g, O2) and triple covalent bonds
(e.g., N3) also occur.

Different atoms can be covalently bonded to each

other. Eg. methane has H bonded with C.

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POLAR BONDS
Formed during the sharing of electrons between
two atoms of different electronegativity e.g.,
water (H2O).
Waters single O atom attracts electrons much
more than its two H atoms.

Theelectrons associate more with O which

becomes slightly negative as a result. At the
same time, H atoms become slightly positive.
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POLAR BONDS
Molecules with unequal charge
distribution are said to be polar
(unequal sharing of electrons).

Polarmolecules possess distinct

positive and negative regions, or poles,
and attract each other leading to the
formation of the bond
Eg. hydrogen bond
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HYDROGEN BONDS
Hydrogen bonding occurs when an atom
of hydrogen is attracted by rather strong
forces to two atoms instead of only one, so
that it may be considered to be acting as
a bond between them

Eg. Partially positively charged hydrogen atom

lies between partially negatively charged
oxygen or nitrogen atoms
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POLAR BONDS (HYDROGEN BOND)

Red ball = hydrogen

White ball = oxygen
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 COMPOUNDS
MIXTURES
DISPERSION SYSTEMS
SOLUTIONS
SUSPENSION
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COLLOIDS
EMULSION
MIXTURES

Mixtures differ from molecules and compounds in

that they may be of variable composition.
Each component retains its own independent
properties.
Components have not undergone any chemical
reaction with any other substance in the mixture.
A solution of sodium chloride (NaCl, table salt)
in water is a mixture of two substances.
There can be any amount of water and any
amount of sodium chloride.
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MIXTURES
Separationof mixtures can be
accomplished by some physical process
(as opposed to a chemical reaction).
Eg. Sodium chloride in water
If left to evaporate, water will leave the salt
behind.

Mostmaterials found in nature are not

pure but are mixtures. 35
DISPERSION SYSTEMS- SOLUTIONS
Solutions
Common in nature

Extremely important in both life & industrial

processes.
Vary in concentration

Body fluids (eg. blood and urine) of all life

forms are solutions;
the concentrations of the solutes give
valuable clues on the state of health.
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DISPERSION SYSTEMS- SOLUTIONS
True solutions consist of a solvent
and one or more solutes
Proportions of solute and solvent vary
from one solution to another (whereas
pure substances have fixed
composition).
The solvent is the medium in which
the solutes are dissolved.
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DISPERSION SYSTEMS- SOLUTIONS
The fundamental units of solutes are usually
molecules or ions.
Molecules 2 or more atoms held chemically
combined in a definite arrangement. Eg. O2

Ions - atoms, groups of atoms that would

normally be neutral but now have become
charged by the gain or loss of an electron.
Negative ions (anions) have more electrons in
its shells than protons in its nucleus. Eg. O2-
Positive ions (cations) have less electrons in its

shells than protons in its nucleus. Eg. H+

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DISPERSION SYSTEMS- SOLUTIONS
Homogenous mixture have the
solute molecules relatively small in
comparison to the solvent molecules.
Solutions may involve many
different forms of matter; a solid,
liquid, or gas can act as either a
solvent or solute.
Most common kinds of solutions
have liquids as the solvent.
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DISPERSION SYSTEMS- SOLUTIONS
Eg.of common solutions with non-liquid
solvents:
Air is a solution of gases (with variable
composition).
Dental fillings are liquid in solid; solutions of
liquid mercury dissolved in metals.
Alloys are solid solutions of solid metals
dissolved in one another.
Thesolutes in solutions are
relatively small in comparison to the
solvent molecules. 40
DISPERSION SYSTEMS- SUSPENSIONS
Suspension
A heterogeneous mixture in
which the large solute-like particles
immediately settle out after mixing
with a solvent like phase.

Forexample, sand is stirred into

water. The solute does not dissolve.

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DISPERSION SYSTEMS- COLLOIDS
Colloids, colloidal suspensions, or colloidal
dispersions

Intermediate kind of a mixture

(between homogenous, solution and
totally heterogeneous, suspension)
in which the solute like particles, or
dispersed phase, are suspended in
the solvent-like phase or dispersing
medium.
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 DISPERSION SYSTEMS- COLLOIDS
The
particles of the dispersed solute are large in
comparison to the solvent but small enough to
remain suspended and settling is negligible.
Solute neither dissolves nor sediments

Solute particles large enough to make the

mixture appear cloudy (or opaque) because light
is scattered as it passes through the colloid.
Suspension therefore heterogenous.
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 DISPERSION SYSTEMS- COLLOIDS
If left for a long time, flocculation
occurs, that is, the particles come
together then settle out.

Colloid Classification
hydrophilic (water loving) or
hydrophobic (water hating)
based on the surface characteristics of the
dispersed particles. 44
DISPERSION SYSTEMS- COLLOIDS
Hydrophilic Colloids
Proteinseg. haemoglobin form hydrophilic
sols when they are suspended in saline
aqueous body fluids eg. blood plasma.

These proteins fold and twist in an aqueous

solvent so that polar groups are exposed to
the fluid, while non-polar groups are encased.

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DISPERSION SYSTEMS- COLLOIDS
Hydrophilic Colloids
Gels are special types of sols (solid in
liquid colloid) in which the solid solutes
join together in a semi-rigid network
structure that encloses the solvent.

Protoplasm in human cells are examples

of gels. The solute are mainly proteins and
carbohydrates and the solvent aqueous)
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DISPERSION SYSTEMS- COLLOIDS
Hydrophobic Colloids

Hydrophobic solutes cannot exist in polar

solvents without the presence of
emulsifying agents.
Emulsifiers coat the solute to prevent their
coagulation into a separate phase.

In milk, the fat is emulsified by casein.

In mayonnaise, the vegetable oil is
emulsified by egg yolk. 47
EMULSIONS

Two liquids are immiscible and

there do not dissolve in each
other.
Liquid in liquid colloid
e.g., oil and water.

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COLLOIDS

Adsorption
The adhesion of the molecules of liquids,
gases, and dissolved substances to the
surfaces of solids
(as opposed to absorption, in which the
molecules actually enter the absorbing
medium).

Colloidal
particles suspended in a
solution may adsorb much of the solvent.
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ADSORPTION
Charcoal, for example, is used in
industry to remove colors from
solutions, since they adsorb many
coloring materials and carry these
with them when separated from the
solution.

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