Indian Institute of Welding ANB

Refresher Course Module 12

Construction And
Design

S.K.Gupta
 Contents

Behaviour of welded structures under

different types of loading

Design for static loading

Design for dynamic loading

Design of welded pressure equipment

JUPITER WAGONS
 Objectives of Weld Joint Design

Weld Joint design are ideally to provide an

assembly that :
Will perform its Intended Functions
Will have required Reliability & Safety

Is capable of being Fabricated, Inspected,

Transported & placed in service at minimum total
cost.
Total cost includes the cost includes the cost of ;
Front end Engineering, Design, Materials, Fabrication,
Erection, Inspection, Operation etc.,
 3.5.1. Behaviour Of Welded Structures
Under Different Types Of Loading
All composite and fabricated structures work
under different environmental and loading
conditions such as :
Static or dynamic loading
Concentrated or distributed loading
Tension or compression or torsional loading
Combination of above loading
At normal temperature
At sub-zero temperature
At elevated temperature
 3.5.2. Behaviour Of Welded Structures

Steels working under above mentioned conditions of

loading and temperatures behave differently due to
variation of the following properties :
Tensile strength
Ductility
Impact strength or toughness
Creep resistance
Brittleness
Variations in the above properties occur mainly due to
the changes in the grain structures and inter granular
grain cohessiveness
 3.5.3. Static And Dynamic Loading

Under static loading condition the

tensile strength ,
compressive strength ,
shear strength values
are determinants of the section of
the material and that of the weld
 Static and Dynamic loading
But when the load
varies in value ,
is repeated at relatively high frequency,
constitutes a relatively high frequency

the materials endurance limit must be

substituted for the tensile strength in the
calculations to determine section and weld
dimensions
Static and Dynamic Loading

At a given high stress

value the material has a
definite service or fatigue
life expressed as n
cycles of operations.
 3.6.2. Types Of Load

STATIC IMPACT

VARIABLE
Typical Types of Load

TENSION

COMPRESSION

LOAD
 Types of Load

TENSILE LOADING
Types of Load

COMPRESSIVE
LOAD
Types of Load
LOAD

SHEAR
SHEAR LOADING
 3.6.5. Stress, Strain, Modulus Of Elasticity.

Stress is defined to be the load on a member

divided by the area of cross section and is expressed
in newton per mm sq.
Stress may be tensile or compressive or shear
Elongation or compression per unit length is
termed strain and is a number.
The ratio of stress by strain is called modulus of
elasticity
The endurance limit is the maximum stress to
which the material can be subjected for an indefinite
service life.
 STRESS, STRAIN, MODULUS OF
ELASTICITY
LOAD 2
STRESS = N/mm
CROSS SECTIONAL AREA

STRAIN = CHANGE IN LENGTH

ORIGINAL LENGTH

2
MODULUS OF ELASTICITY = STRESS N/mm
STRAIN
3.5.4. STRESS STRAIN RELATIONSHIP
OF DIFFERENT MATERIALS
TUNGSTEN
STEEL
STRESS

ALUMINUM

CAST IRON
RUBBER

STRAIN
 3.5.5. Stress Vs N Curve

S
T
R ENDURANCE
ENDURANCE
E
S
S

N CYCLES OF STRESS
 3.5.6. Elevated Temperature
Strength

At elevated temperatures
secondary stresses such as
those due to thermal gradients
or due to non-uniform heating
and cooling can be relatively
large and difficult to assess.
These stresses may affect
service performance of a
structure with regard to strength
characteristics.
 Elevated Temperature Stresses

Design stresses are usually limited

by yield and tensile strengths upto a
moderate temperature of about
450 deg. to 535 deg. Centigrade.

At higher temperatures the design

stresses are limited by creep and
creep rupture strength.
 3.5.7. Elevated Temperature Design

In designing apparatus / structures at

elevated temperatures allowance must be
made for the thermal coefficient of
expansion of the component materials.
The tensile modulus of elasticity at room
temperature decreases linearly upto 450
deg. Centigrade and then begins to drop at
an increasing rate.
Creep ( continuous non-reversible plastic
deformation with time under load )
resistance is the most important property to
consider in designing a structure to operate
at elevated temperature.
 CREEP STRENGTH

Two standards of creep strengths are

commonly used :

The stress to produce a minimum

creep rate of 0.00001 per cent per hour
( 1 per cent per 100,000 hours )

The stress to produce a total creep

strain of 1 per cent per 100,000 hours.
 SCHEMATIC CREEP CURVE
A ELASTIC
EXTENSION
E
C B- CREEP AT
DECREASING RATE
EXTENSION PER CENT

B D
C CREEP AT
APPROXIMATELY
F CONSTANT RATE

D CREEP AT
INCREASING RATE
A
E ELASTIC
CONTRACTION

ELAPSED TIME IN HOURS F PERMANENT

CHANGE OF LENGTH
 3.5.8. Low Temperature Strength

The terms
low temperature and
cryogenic
may be defined as involving
temperatures to
100 degree and 273 deg. Centigrade.
 LOW TEMPERATURE STRENGTH

Design of structures operating at

low temperatures are based on
the properties of
yield and tensile strength,
fatigue limit,
ductility and
toughness especially
notch toughness.
 NOTCH TOUGHNESS

Notch toughness is a property of

steel reflected in its resistance to
brittle failure under conditions of
high stress concentration such as
impact loading in the presence of a
notch.
3.5.9. Influence Of Notches And Weld
Defects

Structures and welds are

designed on the basic
assumptions that the steels
and the welds are defect free
resulting normal tensile / yield
strength, ductility, toughness
and homogenous structures.
 Influence of Notches

However defects such as

notch in the steel brings stress
concentration resulting brittle
failure under impact load.
 Influence of Weld Defects

Similarly weld defects such as

undercut,
porosity,
cracks,
lack of fusion and penetration
will cause failure of the welded
joint and the structure at a load
less than the designed value
 3.5.10.Types Of Fractures -- I

Failure of structural members at stresses

well below their yield strengths indicates other
considerations besides the conventional
tensile properties. Analysis of the failures
indicates that the fractures usually are
initiated at notches caused by :
Design features rigidity of members
Fabrication procedures weld arc, defects
Flaws in the materials flakes, seams
Fracture surfaces provide an indication
of the probable causes of failure
 3.5.11. Types Of Fractures -- II

Normal observations of fractured

surfaces of a structural member may
be of :
Brittle fracture or low energy fracture
-surface tends to show that there is
little deformation , the surfaces are flat
and at right angles having a shiny
crystalline appearance.
 Types of Fractures

Ductile or shear fracture occurs

after plastic deformation by a
sliding action. There are signs of
yielding along edges of the
fractured surfaces normally at 45
deg. angle with a dull fibrous
appearance.
 Types of Fractures
Lamellar Tearing

Lamellar tearing -
- layers of plate
seams open up at
fractured surfaces
showing clean
separation.
 3.5.12. TYPES OF CRYOGENIC STEELS
THE MOST COMMON RANGES OF COMPOSITIONS
OF DIFFERENT ELEMENTS IN SUCH STEELS ARE :
CARBON-------------------0.06 TO 0.10 PERCENT
MANGANESE--------------1.50 TO 9.00 PERCENT
SILICON ---------------NORMALLY 0.60 PERCENT
NICKEL -------------------4.50 TO 18.00 PERCENT
CHROMIUM -------------17.00 TO 25.00 PERCENT

CRYOGENIC STEELS CONTAINING 9.00 PERCENT

NICKEL ARE CAPABLE OF RETAINING TOUGHNESS
AT A VERY LOW TEMPERATURES.
 3.5.13. CREEP RESISTANCE
STEELS
CHROMIUM MOLYBDENUM STEELS SUCH AS 2.25
Cr.,1.00 Mo STEELS ARE USED EXCLUSSIVELY FOR A
VARIETY OF TEMPERATURE APPLICATIONS UPTO
450 DEG. CENTIGRADE
12.00 PERCENT Cr. STAINLESS STEELS ARE USED
UPTO A TEMPERATURE OF 705 DEG. CENTIGRADE
17.00 PERCENT Cr. STAINLESS STEELS ARE USED IN
APPLICATIONS UPTO A TEMPERATURE OF 816 DEG
CENTIGRADE
27.00 PERCENT Cr. STAINLESS STEELS ARE USED IN
APPLICATIONS FROM 870 to 1095 DEG CENTIGRADE
WHERE MOST SEVERE OXIDATION IS
ENCOUNTERED.
 3.5.14. TENSILE PROPERTIES OF
CRYOGENIC STEELS
TENSILE YIELD LOWEST
STRENGTH STRENGTH SERVICE
AISI NO. (Mpa) TEMP DEG.
(Mpa)
CENT.

201 655 310 -195

304 L 483 172 -270

316 517 207 -270

 3.5.15. CORRELATION BETWEEN ROOM TEMP.
TENSILE STRENGTH AND 100000 HRS RUPTURE
STRENGTH FOR Cr- Mo STEEL
TENSILE 100000 HR RUPTURE STRENGTH
STRENGTH AT AT AT AT
27 DEG.CENT. 427 DEG. CENT. 482 DEG. CENT. 538 DEG. CENT
(Mpa) (Mpa) (Mpa) (Mpa)

655 365 262 186

724 445 302 193

793 524 334 200

 3.6.3. Types Of Joints
WELD
SINGLE
T JOINT
DOUBLE
CORNER WELD WELD T JOINT
JOINT

SQUARE BUTT JOINT

WELD DOUBLE VEE BUTT JOINT

SINGLE VEE BUTT JOINT

RE INFORCEMENT
FLANGE JOINT
SQUARE BUTT WELD SINGLE U BUTT WELD

SINGLE BEVEL BUTT

DOUBLE U BUTT WELD
DOUBLE VEE BUTT

DOUBLE BEVEL BUTT SINGLE J BUTT WELD

TYPES OF BUTT WELDED

JOINTS
 3.6.4. Joint Design
0 0
45 60
B
A ROOT GAP
D
C

LAND SPACER

E RIGHT WRONG

F
BACK GOUGING
 Determining Weld Size :
Groove Weld
In strength connections, groove welds must be
made all the way through the plate, i.e. 100 %
penetration.
Since a groove weld, properly made, has equal or
better strength than the plate, there is no need for
calculating the stress in the weld or the size of
the weld.
The only consideration is that the weld metal
deposit must be same or similar to the parent
metal composition to match the strength.
 Groove Weld Size

FULL PENETRATION GROOVE WELD

SAME DIMENSIONAL TO THICKNESS
AND WIDTH
 EFFECTIVE
THROAT LEG

LEG
THEORETICAL
THROAT

ACTUAL THROAT
FILLET WELD
NOMENCLATURE
 Single-bevel tee joint can withstand more severe
loadings than the square tee joint,
because of better distribution of stresses.

Horizontal Fillet Weld Double-Vee,

Groove
Weld
Types of Corner Joint Welds
 Determining Weld Size :
Fillet welds
RULE OF THUMB FOR FILLET WELD SIZE
In order to develop the full strength of a plate by
fillet weld, it is necessary that the leg size of a
fillet be of the plate thickness

w = t
This assumes that :
1. Fillet welds on both sides of the plate
2. Fillet weld for full length of the plate
3. t = thickness of the thinner plate
 Determining Fillet Weld Size
Rule of thumb for rigidity design
When a member is designed to maintain a certain
degree of rigidity or stiffness, the stresses are
usually of a rather low value, but the weld size is
still dependent on the forces which must be
transferred through them.
The rigidity design would require a fillet leg length
1/2 to 1/3 of the full weld size

W = 1/4 t 3/8 t
 3.6.7. SHEAR STRENGTH OF WELD
HORIZONTAL SHEAR FORCE ON EACH WELD

r Vay N/m
=
h In
WHERE :
V = TOTAL SHEAR ON SECTION AT A GIVEN
POSITION ALONG BEAM, ( N )
2
a = AREA OF FLANGE HELD BY WELD ( m )
y = DISTANCE BETWEEN THE C.G. OF FLANGE AREA
AND N.A. OF THE WHOLE SECTION (m)
4
I = MOMENT OF INERTIA OF THE WHOLE SECTION ( m )
n = NUMBER OF WELDS JOINING EACH FLANGE TO WEB
 3.6.8. WORKED EXAMPLE ON 3.6.7.

GIVEN :
Width of the flange= 250 mm. Thickness of the flange = 70 mm
Thickness of the web = 15 mm. Depth of the web = 1200mm
Total shear on section = 860 Kn
3 6
Then : r = (V.a.Y)/I.n ( 860/10) x (70 x 250)/10 x 1270/2000
h =
3 3
{ ( 250/12000) x (1.340 ) 2.35 x 1.2 } x 2/12
= 0.2934712 MN/m
If the size of the fillet is w, and allowable shear strength = 96 MN/m2
Then, 0.707 w x 96 = 0.2934712.
or w = 4.32 mm

THIS SHOULD BE THE MINIMUM LEG SIZE OF THE CONTINUOUS

FILLET WELD
 250
70

AREA OF
FLANGE
HELD BY
WELDS
1200

860 kN
WELD LEG
SIZE w
V = 860 kN = 860 / 1000 MN = 0.860 MN
Cross-sectional area held by
2
the weld = 70 /1000 x 250 /1000 m
2
= 0.070 x 0.250 = 0.175 m

70
y = distance between the c.g. of the
flange area and the n.a. of the
whole section = (1200 + 70 )/(2 x 1000) m 15
= 0.635 m

1200
I = the moment of inertia of the section
= 1/12 { (250/1000) x (1340/1000)3
3
- (235/1000) x (1200/1000) }
= 0.16282262 m4
n= number of welds joining

70
each flange to web = 2
Throat area for a parallel loaded fillet weld
= 0.707w 250
Allowable shear strength = 96 MN / m
 3.7.1. Behaviour Of Welded Structures
Under Dynamic Loading
When the load on a member is constantly varying
in value or is repeated at relatively high frequency
or constitutes a complete reversal of stresses
with each operating cycle the materials
endurance limit must be substituted for the
ultimate strength where called for by the design
formula
Under high load values the variable or fatigue
mode of loading reduces the materials effective
ultimate strength as the number of cycles
increases
At a given high stress value the material has a
definite service or fatigue life expressed as n
cycles of operations
 3.7.2. ANALYZING THE FATIGUE LOAD

A TYPICAL S a
a Av+
FATIGUE T MAX
LOAD R
PATTERN E a
CURVE Av-
S a
S MIN
TIME
THERE ARE TWO WAYS TO REPRESENT THE FATIGUE LOAD :
1. AS A MEAN OR AVERAGE STRESS WITH A SUPERIMPOSED
VARIABLE STRESS
2. AS A STRESS VARYING FROM A MAXIMUM VALUE TO A
MINIMUM VALUE . HERE THE CYCLE CAN BE
REPRESENTED BY THE RATIO
K = a Min / a Max
 3.7.3. VARIABLE STRESS AND MEAN
STRESS RELATIONSHIP
b
d
f

c e a

a = ULTIMATE STRENGTH UNDER STEADY LOAD (YIELD STRENGTH)

b = FATIGUE STRENGTH FOR A COMPLETE REVERSAL OF STRESS
f = VARIABLE STRESS SUPERIMPOSED ON STEADY STRESS
e = MEAN STRESS ( AVERAGE STRESS )
A LINE CONNECTING POINTS b AND a WILL INDICATE THE
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE VARIABLE STRESS AND THE MEAN
STRESS FOR ANY TYPE OF FATIGUE CYCLE FOR A GIVEN FATIGUE
LIFE N .
 3.7.4. Fatigue Strength

100

95
ALLOWABLE FATIGUE STRESS X 100
KNOWN FATIGUE STRENGTH
90

85

80

75

70
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
N / Na
b
 3.7.5. FATIGUE STRENGTH AS RELATED
TO THE NUMBER OF CYCLES

IF , a = FATIGUE STRENGTH FOR N CYCLES

A A
a = FATIGUE STRENGTH FOR N CYCLES
B B
c = 0.13 FOR BUTT WELDS AND
= 0.18 FOR PLATES IN AXIAL LOADING, TENSION AND
COMPRESSION

THEN , c
a = a x(N /N )
A B B A
 3.7.6. Improving Fatigue Strength

Fatigue strength of welded structures can be improved

by :
1. Using butt joints rather than lap joints
2. Avoiding intermittent fillet welds
3. Minimizing the size of the fillet welds
4. Peening the weld immediately after
welding
5. Post weld heat treatment to remove built
in stresses
6. Tumbling small welded components
7. Giving preference to structures with
multiple load paths.
Improvement in fillet weld fatigue life
 Improving Fatigue strength
Reduce Stress Concentration
Flush machining in butt welds (100%
improvement)
Toe grinding in fillet welds (80% impr.)
Use smooth shapes,transitions
Put welds in low stress areas
Check weld joint classifications

Melt smoothing ;TIG Torch (140% impr.) Fatigue strength of welds does
not depend on the yield and
Introducing Compressive stresses tensile strengths of parent
Shot or grit blasting (25-100% impr.) metal.

Peening (80 % improvement)

Spot heating in region adjacent to weld
(200% impr. very difficult to control in
practice)
Overloading Plastic deformn. relaxes
residual stresses (50% impr.)
 3.8.1. Design Of Dynamically Loaded
Structures: Applications

Most common and widely used welded

constructions working under moderate to
heavy dynamic loading are
1. Bridge structurals
2. Automobiles
3. Railway wagons and coaches
4. Sea going vessels
5. Offshore drilling platforms
6. Stationary and mobile cranes
7. Tall chimneys
8. Towers
 3.8.2. Fatigue Strength In Cyclic
Loads
KIND OF FATIGUE DESIGN STRESS N / mm
WELD AND BUT NOT
6 5 5 TO
STRESS 2 x 16 6x 10 10 EXCEED
CYCLES CYCLES CYCLES
BUTT WELD 112 120 127 a
1 0.8r 1 0.7r 1- 0.5r
t
TENSION

BUTT WELD 126 127 127 a

c
COMPRESSION 1-r 1 0.8 r 1 0.5r

FILLET WELD 36 w 50 w 62 w 62 w
ALL 1 0.5r 1 0.5r 1 0.5r
 3.8.3. STRENGTH OF WELDED JOINT

THE STRENGTH OF WELDED JOINT AT ALTERNATING LOAD MAY

APPROXIMATELY BE OBTAINED BY MULTIPLYING THE STRESS
VALUES GIVEN IN SLIDE NO. 3.8.2. BY :
1 FOR BUTT WELDED JOINTS
1 0.3 x { P(min)/ P(max)}

AND BY :
1 FOR CORNER AND SLOT
1.3 0.3 x { P(min)/ P(max)} WELDED JOINTS

HERE P(min) AND P(max) APPEAR IN THE FORMULA EACH

WITH ITS SIGN. HENCE, P(min)/ P(max) < 0 AND THEREFORE THE
FACTOR BECOMES LESS THAN 1 .
 3.8.4.WORKED EXAMPLE - FATIGUE LOADING
100 LOAD 45 kN
100
XXXXXXXXX
PROBLEM
A PLATE IS ATTACHED TO THE
FRAME OF A MACHINE AS xxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
SHOWN IN THE FIGURE 150
SOLUTION
SHOWN WITH A VERTICAL CONSULTING THE TABLE GIVEN IN
LOAD OF 45 Kn. TO FIND OUT 3.8.2.:
THE SIZE OF THE FILLET IF ALLOWABLE LOAD
THE LIFE OF THE COMPONENT = (50 w)/( 1 0.5r) N /mm
IS 6 x 105 CYCLES AT = (50 w)/{1 0.5(-0.3)} N/mm
P(min)/P(MAX) = -0.30 = 43.5 w N/mm
= 795 N/mm (FOR STATIC LOADING)
RESULTANT FORCE= 795 N/mm HENCE w = 18.3 mm.
FOR PRACTICAL PURPOSES THE
FILLET SIZE TO BE TAKEN AS 20mm
 3.9.1. Design Of Welded Pressure Equipment

Welded pressure equipment are close containers

carrying or containing steam, pressurised fluids or
gases exerting uniform pressure in all directions.
Such containers must be tight and have sufficient
strength to withstand internal pressure to which it is
subjected. In arc welded construction the joints are
made as tight and strong as the plates joined.
Tanks, boilers, pipe lines, hydraulic cylinders, steam
chests are some of the examples of pressure vessels in
use.
Containers are required to work at normal, elevated or
even at sub-zero temperatures
 3.9.2. Unfired Pressure Vessels

Any pressure container of any importance

undoubtedly must conform to the
minimum requirements of the asme
section 8 unfired pressure vessels. IN
GENERAL THIS COVERS CONTAINERS
FOR PRESSURES EXCEEDING 15 psi
UPTO A MAXIMUM OF 3000 psi AND
HAVING A DIAMETER EXCEEDING 150 mm

In the next slides formulas for calculating

the minimum required wall thickness of
cylindrical shells and spherical shells are
given.
 CODES in Joint design
Circumferential (Hoop) Forces acting on thin Cylinder under Internal Pressure

ASME modified formulae; close agreement of LAMES equation.

ASME recognises the significance of defects in welds & attempted to
overcome the reduction in strength by incorp. Joint efficiency.

Codes & Stds apply to weldments designed for certain services

 CODES in Joint design
Weld or joint efficiency = joint strength / parent strength - which varies
from 100% for a perfect weld (ie. virtually seamless) through 75-85% for a
tolerably good weld.

Joint efficiency factor dep. on type of weld

& degree of its radiographic inspection.

Joint efficiency E for arc & gas welded joints in code

Acceptance Criteria for Pressure vessel weld joint

UW-14 OPENINGS IN OR ADJACENT TO WELDS

 3.9.3. FORMULAS FOR SHELL THICKNESS
ts = THICKNESS OF THE SHELL IN INCH
rc = MEAN RADIUS OF CIRCUMFERENCE OF THE SHELL IN INCH
r = MEAN RADIUS OF THE MERIDIAN OF THE SHELL IN INCH
m
p = INTERNAL PRESSURE IN psi
a = ALLOWABLE STRESS ( ASME SEC. 8 PAR USC 23 )
E = JOINT EFFICIENCY ( ASME SEC. 8 PAR UW 12 )
a
a = TENSILE STRESS IN THE DIRECTION OF THE MERIDIAN
mp
a = TENSILE STRESS IN THE DIRECTION OF A TANGENT TO A
cp
CIRCUMFERENCE
a = TENSILE STRESS IN THE RADIAL DIRECTION
rp
 3.9.4. WALL THICKNESS OF
CYLINDRICAL SHELL
THIN SHELL :
WHEN ts < ri /2 AND p < 0.385 a E
p ri ri
THEN : t = ro
s a.E 0.6p

THICK SHELL : WHEN ts > r i /2 ts

AND p > 0.385 a E
ro = outside radius
1/2
THEN : t = r {z - 1} ri = inside radius
s i

WHERE : z = (a E + p) / ( a E p) ts = shell thickness

p = Internal pressure
a = Allowable stress
E = Joint efficiency
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